<p>Capri ; ) is an island located in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the Sorrentine Peninsula, on the south side of the Gulf of Naples in the Campania region of Italy. The main town Capri that is located on the island shares the name. It has been a resort since the time of the Roman Republic.</p><br>
<p>Some of the main features of the island include the following: the Marina Piccola (the little harbour), the Belvedere of Tragara (a high panoramic promenade lined with villas), the limestone crags called sea stacks that project above the sea (the Faraglioni), the town of Anacapri, the Blue Grotto (Grotta Azzurra), and the ruins of the Imperial Roman villas.</p><br>
<p>Capri is part of the region of Campania, Province of Naples. The town of Capri is the island&#39;s main population centre. The island has two harbours, Marina Piccola and Marina Grande (the main port of the island). The separate comune of Anacapri is located high on the hills to the west.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The etymology of the name Capri is unclear; it might either be traced back to the Ancient Greeks (Ancient Greek κάπρος kapros meaning "wild boar"), the first recorded colonists to populate the island. But it could also derive from Latin capreae (goats). Fossils of wild boars have been discovered, lending credence to the "kapros" etymology; on the other hand, the Romans called Capri "goat island". Finally, there is also the possibility that the name derives from an Etruscan word for "rocky", though any historical Etruscan rule of the island is disputed.</p><br>
<p>Capri is a large, limestone and sandstone rock. The sides of the island are perpendicular cliffs and the surface of the island is composed of more cliffs.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>Edwin Cerio was mayor of Capri from 1920 to 1923. Although he was only three years in office, his vision and policies had far-reaching impact on the nature and role of the government on the island.</p><br>
<p>Italy is a Republic, thus Capri, as part of Italy, has adopted those same principles too. The voters of the island elect representatives for the two villages on the island. The chosen representatives then choose two mayors to govern with them.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient and Roman times</h3><br>
<p>The city has been inhabited since early times. Evidence of human settlement was discovered during the Roman era; according to Suetonius, when the foundations for the villa of Augustus were being excavated, giant bones and weapons of stone were discovered. The emperor ordered these to be displayed in the garden of his main residence, the Sea Palace. Modern excavations have shown that human presence on the island can be dated to the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. Augustus developed Capri; he built temples, villas, aqueducts, and planted gardens so he could enjoy his private paradise.</p><br>
<p>In his Aeneid, Virgil states that the island had been populated by the Greek people of Teleboi, coming from the Ionian Islands. Strabo says that "in ancient times in Capri there were two towns, later reduced to one." Tacitus records that there were twelve Imperial villas in Capri. Ruins of one at Tragara could still be seen in the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>Augustus&#39; successor Tiberius built a series of villas at Capri, the most famous of which is the Villa Jovis, one of the best-preserved Roman villas in Italy. In 27 AD, Tiberius permanently moved to Capri, running the Empire from there until his death in 37 AD.</p><br>
<p>In 182 AD, Emperor Commodus banished his sister Lucilla to Capri. She was executed shortly afterwards.</p><br>
<h3>Middle and Modern Ages</h3><br>
<p>After the end of the Western Roman Empire, Capri returned to the status of a dominion of Naples, and suffered various attacks and ravages by pirates. In 866 Emperor Louis II gave the island to Amalfi. In 987 Pope John XV consecrated the first bishop of Capri, when Capri, Scala, Minori, and Lettere were made dioceses to serve as suffragans of Amalfi, which thereby became a metropolitan see. Capri continued to be a residential diocese until 1818, when the island became part of the archdiocese of Sorrento. No longer a residential bishopric, Capri, Capreae in Latin, is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.</p><br>
<p>In 1496 Frederick IV of Naples established legal and administrative parity between the settlements of Capri and Anacapri. The pirate raids reached their peak during the reign of Charles V: the famous Turkish admirals Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha and Turgut Reis captured the island for the Ottoman Empire, in 1535 and 1553 respectively.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded tourist to visit the island was French antiques dealer Jean-Jacques Bouchard in the 17th century. His diary, found in 1850, is an important information source about Capri.</p><br>
<h3>1800s – present</h3><br>
<p>French troops under Napoleon occupied Capri in January 1806. The British ousted the French in the following May, after which Capri was turned into a powerful naval base (a "Second Gibraltar"), but the building program caused heavy damage to the archaeological sites. The French reconquered Capri in 1808, and remained there until the end of the Napoleonic era (1815), when Capri was returned to the Bourbon ruling house of Naples.</p><br>
<p>The natural scientist Ignazio Cerio catalogued Capri&#39;s flora and fauna during the 19th century. His work was continued by his son, author and engineer Edwin Cerio, who wrote several books on life in Capri in the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the First World War the island was extremely popular with wealthy gay men. John Ellingham Brooks and E.F. Benson shared a villa there. Taormina was another Italian resort popular with artists and gay men from northern Europe.</p><br>
<p>Norman Douglas, Friedrich Alfred Krupp, Jacques dAdelswärd-Fersen, Christian Wilhelm Allers, Emil von Behring, Curzio Malaparte, Axel Munthe, and Maxim Gorky are all reported to have owned a villa there, or to have stayed there for more than three months. Swedish Queen Victoria often stayed there because Axel Munthe was her doctor. Rose ONeill, the American illustrator and creator of the Kewpie, owned the Villa Narcissus, formerly owned by the famous Beaux-Arts painter Charles Caryl Coleman. Dame Gracie Fields also had a villa and restaurant on the island and is buried there. Mariah Carey owns a villa on the island.</p><br>
<p>In 1908 Lenin was hosted by Maxim Gorky, the Russian author, at his house near the Giardini Augusto. In 1970 a monument by Giacomo Manzù was erected during the centennial celebration in Lenin&#39;s honour.</p><br>
<p>Today, Capri has become more of a resort and is visited by tourists during the summer months of July and August.</p><br>
<h2>Capri in art and literature</h2><br>
<p>During the later half of the 19th century, Capri became a popular resort for European artists, writers and other celebrities. The book that spawned the 19th century fascination with Capri in France, Germany, and England was Entdeckung der blauen Grotte auf der Insel Capri, Discovery of the Blue Grotto on the Isle of Capri, by the German painter and writer August Kopisch, in which he describes his 1826 stay on the island and his (re)discovery of the Blue Grotto.</p><br>
<p>John Singer Sargent and Frank Hyde are among the prominent artists who stayed on the island around the late 1870s. Sargent is known for his series of portraits featuring local model Rosina Ferrara. The English artist and adventurer, John Wood Shortridge acquired a fortino at Marina Piccola there in the 1880s, (later transformed into a private villa by Dame Gracie Fields) and married a Capri girl, Carmela Esposito. He formed a close friendship with the English novelist George Gissing who provides a colourful and insightful account of his stays with Shortridge in his Published Letters of George Gissing. In the Gissing Journal, vol. XXXV, no. 3 (July, 1999), p. 2. it is recorded that the only mention of him in a recent book, albeit partially inaccurate, occurs in James Moneys "Capri: Island of Pleasure" (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1986, p. 42). Claude Debussy refers to the islands hills in the title of his impressionistic prélude Les collines d&#39;Anacapri (1910). Capri is the setting for "The Lotus Eater" (1945), a short story by Somerset Maugham. In the story, the protagonist from Hendon, part of the borough of Barnet, in London, comes to Capri on a holiday and is so enchanted by the place he gives up his job and decides to spend the rest of his life in leisure there. British novelist Compton Mackenzie lived there from 1913 to 1920, with later visits, and set some of his work on the island, e.g. Vestal Fire (1927).</p><br>
<p>As well as being a haven for writers and artists, Capri served as a relatively safe place for foreign gay men and lesbians to lead a more open life; a small nucleus of them were attracted to live there, overlapping to some extent with the creative types mentioned above. Poet August von Platen-Hallermünde was one of the first. Jacques dAdelswärd-Fersen wrote the roman à clef Et le feu s’éteignit sur la mer (1910) about Capri and its residents in the early 20th century, causing a minor scandal. Fersens life on Capri became the subject of Roger Peyrefittes fictionalised biography, LExilé de Capri. A satirical presentation of the islands lesbian colony is made in Mackenzies 1928 novel Extraordinary Women (unrelated to the Dominican film of the same name), inspired by the affairs of American painter Romaine Brooks (in the novel, under the pseudonym of Olimpia Leigh). One of the islands most famous foreign gay exiles was Norman Douglas; his novel South Wind (1917) is a thinly fictionalised description of Capris residents and visitors, and a number of his other works, both books and pamphlets, deal with the island, including Capri (1930) and his last work, A Footnote on Capri (1952).</p><br>
<p>Memoirs set on Capri include Edwin Cerios Aria di Capri (1928) (translated as That Capri Air), which contains a number of historical and biographical essays on the island, including a tribute to Norman Douglas; The Story of San Michele (1929) by Swedish royal physician Axel Munthe (1857–1949), who built a villa of that name and Shirley Hazzards Greene on Capri: A Memoir (2000), about her reminiscences of Graham Greene. Graham Greene had a house in the town of Anacapri, the upper portion of the island, where he lived with his lover Catherine Walston.</p><br>
<p>The Last Legion, a historical fantasy novel by Valerio Massimo Manfredi, is partly set on the island of Capri, where Romulus is imprisoned after a failed rescue attempt in Ravenna by Aurelianus. Romulus discovers the sword of Julius Caesar hidden in one of Tiberius&#39;s villas, which is revealed at the end of the novel to be the legendary sword Excalibur. Parts of the 2007 film adaptation were subsequently filmed on the island.</p><br>
<p>French singer Hervé Vilard scored a 1965 international success with the song "Capri c&#39;est fini".</p><br>
<h2>Main sights</h2><br>
<p>rect 49 952 212 1050 Punta Carena Lighthouse</p><br>
<p>rect 701 575 898 725 Monte Solaro</p><br>
<p>rect 1157 562 1325 636 Via Krupp</p><br>
<p>rect 1599 396 1768 497 Arco Naturale</p><br>
<p>rect 1627 101 1789 182 Villa Lysis</p><br>
<p>rect 1772 174 1897 249 Villa Jovis</p><br>
<p>rect 1553 765 1731 866 Faraglioni</p><br>
<p>rect 774 206 983 286 Villa San Michele</p><br>
<p>rect 236 42 408 128 Blue Grotto</p><br>
<p>rect 270 682 466 881 Capri Philosophical Park</p><br>
<p>rect 1725 544 1910 663 Villa Malaparte</p><br>
<p>rect 1346 552 1551 618 Certosa di San Giacomo</p><br>
<p>rect 475 246 765 518 Anacapri</p><br>
<p>rect 1338 500 1514 554 Capri (town)</p><br>
<p>rect 1287 429 1462 501 Piazzetta</p><br>
<p>rect 1191 185 1446 299 Marina Grande</p><br>
<p>rect 1101 644 1307 699 Marina Piccola</p><br>
<p>rect 1151 499 1318 561 Gardens of Augustus</p><br>
<p>rect 294 552 483 671 Torre Materita</p><br>
<p>the following entries do not yet have articles:</p><br>
<p>rect 129 128 344 211 Villa Damecuta</p><br>
<p>rect 827 90 1007 180 Bagni di Tiberio</p><br>
<p>rect 1568 523 1710 643 Monte Tuoro</p><br>
<p>rect 1335 309 1537 422 Monte San Michele</p><br>
<p>rect 771 369 937 511 Monte Cappello</p><br>
<p>rect 1793 66 1990 171 Monte Tiberio</p><br>
<h2>Annual events</h2><br>
<p>Capri Art Film Festival (every April since 2006)</p><br>
<p>Festival of San Costanzo (Capri patron saint) – May 14</p><br>
<p>Festival of Sant’Antonio (Anacapri patron saint) – June 13</p><br>
<p>Capri Tango Festival (every June since 2007)</p><br>
<p>International Folklore Festival (Anacapri) – August</p><br>
<p>Settembrata Anacaprese (Anacapri harvest festival) – September</p><br>
<p>Capri International Film Festival (every late December/early January since 1995)</p><br>
<p>Capri Hollywood</p><br>
<p>Eventi Villa San Michele</p><br>
<p>Premio San Michele</p><br>
<p>Premio Faraglioni</p><br>
<p>Premio Cari dell Enigma</p><br>
<p>Maraton del Golfo Capri</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Capri is a tourist destination for both Italians and foreigners. In the 1950s Capri became a popular resort. In summer, the island is heavily visited by tourists, especially by day trippers from Naples and Sorrento. Many of these visitors make it a point to wear the pants named after the destination. The center of Capri is the Piazza.</p><br>
<p>Capri is home to the Mediterranean bush, the Arboreal Euphorbia, and the Ilex Wood. The native inhabitants on the island include quails, robins, peregrine falcons, woodcocks, blackbirds, geckos, red goldfish, conger eels, sargos, groupers, mullets, and the blue lizard of the Faraglioni.</p><br>
<p>Capri has twelve churches, seven museums and several monuments. The most visited attraction in Capri is the Grotta Azzurra (Blue Grotto). It is a special cave, discovered in the 19th century by foreign tourists and has been a phenomenon ever since. On one side of the grotto are the remains of ancient Roman rock, with a narrow cavern.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Capri is served by ferry or hydrofoil from Naples, Sorrento, Positano or Amalfi as well as by boat services from the ports of the Bay of Naples and the Sorrentine Peninsula. Boats arrive in the morning and leave after lunch (3–4 pm). Naples is served by two ports, Mergellina and Molo Beverello. Molo Beverello has a higher frequency of departures and a larger selection of boats than Mergellina.</p><br>
<p>From Naples, the ferry takes 80 minutes, and the hydrofoil 40 minutes. From Sorrento, the ferry takes about 40 minutes while the hydrofoil takes about 20 minutes.</p><br>
<p>Boats call Marina Grande, from where a funicular goes up to Capri town. From Anacapri, a chair lift takes passengers to Monte Solaro, the highest point on the island. There is also a bus service that connects the centre of Capri town with Marina Grande, Marina Piccola, Anacapri and other points.</p><br>
<h3>Airports</h3><br>
<p>The nearest airports are:</p><br>
<p>Napoli-Capodichino (NAP)</p><br>
<p>Salerno-Pontecagnano (QSR)</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns – Sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Capri is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Crosby, Merseyside, United Kingdom</p><br>
<p>Haleakalā , or the East Maui Volcano, is a massive shield volcano that forms more than 75% of the Hawaiian Island of Maui. The western 25% of the island is formed by another volcano, Mauna Kahalawai, also referred to as the West Maui Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The tallest peak of Haleakalā ("house of the sun"), at 10,023 ft, is Puu Ulaula (Red Hill). From the summit one looks down into a massive depression some 11.25 km (7 mi) across, 3.2 km (2 mi) wide, and nearly 800 m (2,600 ft) deep. The surrounding walls are steep and the interior mostly barren-looking with a scattering of volcanic cones.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Early Hawaiians applied the name Haleakalā ("house of the sun") to the general mountain. Haleakalā is also the name of a peak on the southwestern edge of Kaupō Gap. In Hawaiian folklore, the depression (crater) at the summit of Haleakalā was home to the grandmother of the demigod Māui. According to the legend, Māui&#39;s grandmother helped him capture the sun and force it to slow its journey across the sky in order to lengthen the day.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>According to the United States Geological Survey USGS Volcano Warning Scheme for the United States, the Volcano Alert Level for Haleakala as of August 2015 was "normal". A Normal status is used to designate typical volcanic activity in a non-eruptive phase. Haleakala has produced numerous eruptions in the last 30,000 years, including in the last 500 years. This volcanic activity has been along two rift zones: the southwest and east. These two rift zones together form an arc that extends from La Perouse Bay on the southwest, through the Haleakalā Crater, and to Hāna to the east. The east rift zone continues under the ocean beyond the east coast of Maui as Haleakalā Ridge, making the combined rift zones one of the longest in the Hawaiian Islands chain.</p><br>
<p>Until recently, East Maui Volcano was thought to have last erupted around 1790, based largely on comparisons of maps made during the voyages of La Perouse and George Vancouver. Recent advanced dating tests, however, have shown that the last eruption was more likely to have been in the 17th century. These last flows from the southwest rift zone of Haleakalā make up the large lava deposits of the Ahihi Kina`u/La Perouse Bay area of South Maui.</p><br>
<p>Contrary to popular belief, Haleakalā "crater" is not volcanic in origin, nor can it accurately be called a caldera (which is formed when the summit of a volcano collapses to form a depression). Scientists believe that Haleakalā&#39;s "crater" was formed when the headwalls of two large erosional valleys merged at the summit of the volcano. These valleys formed the two large gaps — Koolau on the north side and Kaupō on the south — on either side of the depression.</p><br>
<p>Macdonald, Abbott, & Peterson state it this way:</p><br>
<h3>Volcanic hazard</h3><br>
<p>On the island of Hawaii, lava-flow hazards are rated on a scale of one through nine with one being the zone of highest hazard and nine being the zone of lowest hazard. For example, the summits and rift zones of Kilauea and Mauna Loa volcanoes are rated Hazard Zone 1.</p><br>
<p>Using this same scale, preliminary estimates of lava-flow hazard zones on Maui made in 1983 by the USA Geological Survey rated the summit and southwest rift zone of Haleakala as Hazard Zone 3. The steep, downslope areas of the Kanaio and Kahikinui ahupuaa and the area north of Hana are rated as Hazard Zone 4. Other areas of Haleakala are rated comparable to the lava-flow hazards of Mauna Kea and Kohala (Hazard Zones 7 through 9).</p><br>
<p>These high hazard estimates for Haleakala are based on the frequency of its eruptions. Haleakala has erupted three times in approximately the last 900 years. By way of comparison, both Mauna Loa and Kilauea have erupted more than a dozen times each in the last 90 years. Hualalai has an eruption rate comparable to Haleakala. All of Hualalai is rated as Hazard Zone 4. However, the frequency of eruption of a volcano is only one of the criteria on which hazards are based. The other important criterion is the lava flow coverage rate. Using the preliminary dates for Haleakala flows, only 8.7 square miles of lava flows have been emplaced in the last 900 years. In comparison, approximately 43 square miles of Hualalai are covered with flows 900 years old or younger and approximately 104 square miles on Kilauea and 85 square miles on Mauna Loa are covered by lavas less than 200 years old. Thus, Haleakala is a distant fourth in coverage rates.</p><br>
<h2>Modern uses</h2><br>
<h3>National Park</h3><br>
<p>Surrounding and including the crater is Haleakalā National Park, a 30,183 acre park, of which 24,719 acre are wilderness. The park includes the summit depression, Kipahulu Valley on the southeast, and Oheo Gulch (and pools), extending to the shoreline in the Kipahulu area. From the summit, there are two main trails leading into Haleakalā: Sliding Sands Trail and Halemauu Trail.</p><br>
<p>The temperature near the summit tends to vary between about 40 °F (5 °C) and 60 °F (16 °C) and, especially given the thin air and the possibility of dehydration at that elevation, the walking trails can be more challenging than one might expect. This is aggravated by the fact that trails lead downhill from parking areas into the crater. Because of this, hikers are faced with a difficult return ascent after potentially descending 2000ft or more to the crater floor. Despite this, Haleakalā is popular with tourists and locals alike, who often venture to its summit, or to the visitor center just below the summit, to view the sunrise. There is lodging in the form of a few simple cabins, though no food or gas is available in the park.</p><br>
<h3>Astrophysical research</h3><br>
<p>Because of the remarkable clarity, dryness, and stillness of the air, and its elevation (with atmospheric pressure of 71 kPa/533 mm Hg), as well as the absence of the lights of major cities, the summit of Haleakalā is one of the most sought-after locations in the world for ground-based telescopes (though to a lesser extent than Mauna Kea on neighboring Hawaii). As a result of the geographic importance of this observational platform, experts come from all over the world to take part in research at "Science City", an astrophysical complex operated by the USA Department of Defense, University of Hawaii, Smithsonian Institution, Air Force, Federal Aviation Administration, and others.</p><br>
<p>Some of the telescopes operated by the US Department of Defense are involved in researching man-made (e.g. spacecraft, monitoring satellites, rockets, and laser technology) rather than celestial objects. The program is in collaboration with defense contractors in the Maui Research and Technology Park in Kihei. The astronomers on Haleakalā are concerned about increasing light pollution as Maui&#39;s population grows. Nevertheless, new telescopes are added, such as the Pan-STARRS in 2006.</p><br>
<h3>Transportation</h3><br>
<p>A well traveled Haleakalā Highway, completed in 1935, is a road mainly composed of switchbacks that leads to the peak of Haleakala. The road is open to the public (although parts of it are restricted) and is a well-maintained two-lane highway containing many blind turns and very steep dropoffs. Local animals, including cattle, are often encountered in the roadway. The Park Service charges a vehicle entrance fee of $25 (US). Public transportation does not go through the park, but tour buses visit the summit regularly.</p><br>
<p>There are four Sunset and Stargazing tours to choose from as well. Arrive for sunset and stay to look through a telescope after dark. Cycling and horseback riding are other popular ways to explore the park. There are a few tour guides on Maui that pick people up at their hotels, and outfit them with a bicycle to glide down the road from just outside the National Park boundary (starting at 6500 ft altitude). Tour operators used to run bike rides down the entire 27 miles from the summit, but in 2007 the National Park Service suspended all commercial bicycle activity within the park boundaries, following multiple fatal accidents. Some tour operators now offer a modified version of the service which descends 6,500 feet from outside of the National Park.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate of Haleakalā&#39;s summit is an extremely rare instance of a cold-summer Mediterranean climate in the tropics.</p><br>
<p>Mount Holly Cemetery is a historic cemetery located in the Quapaw Quarter area of downtown Little Rock in the USA state of Arkansas, and is the burial place for numerous Arkansans of note. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 and has been nicknamed "The Westminster Abbey of Arkansas".</p><br>
<h2>Major events</h2><br>
<h3>"Tales of the Crypt"</h3><br>
<p>Every year in October several drama students from Parkview Arts and Science Magnet High School are each given a person buried in the cemetery to research. They then prepare short monologues or dialogues, complete with period costumes, to be performed in front of the researched person&#39;s grave. Audiences are led through the cemetery from grave to grave by guides with candles. The event is called "Tales of the Crypt". Although it takes place around the same time as the American holiday Halloween, the event is meant to be historic rather than spooky.</p><br>
<h3>2016 vandalism</h3><br>
<p>The cemetery experienced heavy vandalism in the overnight hours of April 20, 2016. Numerous headstones were toppled and smashed, including the well-known statues of a mourner next to statues of two little girls.</p><br>
<h2>Burials and memorials</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery is the burial place for ten former Governors of Arkansas, six United States Senators, 14 Arkansas Supreme Court Justices, 21 Little Rock Mayors, numerous Arkansas literary figures, Confederate Generals, and other worthies. There are also several slaves who are buried there, marked by modest gravestones.</p><br>
<p>Haida Gwaii , formerly known as the Queen Charlotte Islands and the Charlottes, is an archipelago on the North Coast of British Columbia, Canada. Approximately half of its population is Haida.</p><br>
<p>The islands are separated from the British Columbia mainland to the east by Hecate Strait. Vancouver Island lies to the south, across Queen Charlotte Sound, while the USA state of Alaska is to the north, across the disputed Dixon Entrance.</p><br>
<p>Haida Gwaii consists of two main islands: Graham Island in the north and Moresby Island in the south, along with approximately 150 smaller islands with a total landmass of 10,180 km². Other major islands include Anthony, Langara, Louise, Lyell, Burnaby, and Kunghit Islands. A parallel name to "Queen Charlotte Islands" used by American traders, who frequented the islands in the days of the marine fur trade and considered the islands part of the US-claimed Oregon Country, was Washington&#39;s Isles.</p><br>
<p>Some of the islands are protected under federal legislation as Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site, which is mostly Moresby Island (Gwaii Haanas in Haida) and adjoining islands and islets. Also protected, but under provincial legislation, are several provincial parks, the largest of which is Naikoon Provincial Park on northeastern Graham Island. The islands are home to an abundance of wildlife, including the largest subspecies of black bear (Ursus americanus carlottae) and also the smallest subspecies of stoat, (Mustela erminea haidarum). Black-tailed deer and raccoon are introduced species that have become abundant.</p><br>
<p>On June 3, 2010, the Haida Gwaii Reconciliation Act officially renamed the islands Haida Gwaii as part of a reconciliation protocol between British Columbia and the Haida people.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The primary transportation links between the Islands and mainland British Columbia are through the Sandspit Airport, the Masset Airport and the BC Ferries terminal at Skidegate.</p><br>
<p>The westernmost leg of Highway 16 connects Masset and Skidegate on Graham Island, and Skidegate with Prince Rupert on the mainland via regular BC Ferries service by the MV Northern Adventure.</p><br>
<p>There is also regular BC Ferries service between Skidegate and Alliford Bay on Moresby Island. Floatplane services connect to facilities such as the Alliford Bay Water Aerodrome and Masset Water Aerodrome.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The economy is mixed, including art and natural resources, primarily logging and commercial fishing. Furthermore, service industries and government jobs provide about one-third of the jobs, and tourism has become a more prominent part of the economy in recent years, especially for fishing and tour guides, cycling, camping, and adventure tourism. Aboriginal culture tourism has been enhanced with the establishment of the Haida Heritage Centre at Kaay Ilnygaay.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Public education is provided through School District 50 Haida Gwaii, which operates elementary and secondary schools in Masset, Port Clements, Queen Charlotte, Sandspit, and Skidegate. Higher education programs are offered at the Haida Heritage Centre in partnership with the Northwest Community College, University of Northern British Columbia, and with the Haida Gwaii Higher Education Society.</p><br>
<h2>Health care</h2><br>
<p>Publicly funded health services are provided by Northern Health, the regional health authority responsible for the northern half of the province.</p><br>
<p>The existing Queen Charlotte General Hospital was built in 1953 and opened in 1955. Its size is approximately 1670 square metres (18,000 square feet). In 2013, construction started on the same site for a $50 million, two-storey replacement hospital, approximately 5,000 square metres (54,000 square feet). Construction of the new Queen Charlotte/Haida Gwaii Hospital will be cost-shared by the province and the North West Regional Hospital District. It will open in 2015.</p><br>
<p>Haida Gwaii has four British Columbia Ambulance Service stations, staffed by 36 part-time paramedics. The first full-time paramedic was hired after the controversial death in 2014 of Godfrey Williams, a Skidegate band councillor, who died from a heart attack after waiting for more than an hour for an ambulance to arrive from a station 10 minutes away. The issue resulted in a review of ambulance services for Haida Gwaii by BC Emergency Health Services.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>At the time of colonial contact, the population was roughly 30,000 people, residing in several towns and including slave populations drawn from other clans of Haida as well as other tribes. It is estimated that ninety percent of the population died during the 1800s from smallpox; other diseases arrived as well, including typhoid, measles, and syphilis, affecting many more inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>By 1900, only 350 people remained. Towns were abandoned as people left their homes for the towns of Skidegate and Masset, for cannery towns on the mainland, or for Vancouver Island. Today, only some 4500 people live on the islands. About 70% of the indigenous people (Haida) live in two communities at Skidegate and Old Massett, with a population of about 700 each. In total the Haida make up 45% of the population of the islands.</p><br>
<p>Anthony Island and the island of Ninstints were made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2006; in the decision, the decline in population wrought by disease was referenced when citing the vanished civilization of the Haida.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Haida Gwaii is considered by archaeologists as an option for a Pacific coastal route taken by the first humans migrating to the Americas from the Bering Strait.</p><br>
<p>It is unclear how people arrived on Haida Gwaii; but archaeological sites have established human habitation on the islands as far back as 13,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Underwater archaeologists from the University of Victoria are seeking to confirm that stone structures discovered in 2014 on the seabed of Hecate Strait may date back 13,700 or more years ago and be the earliest known signs of human habitation in Canada.</p><br>
<h3>Pre-colonial era</h3><br>
<p>The Settlement of the Americas coastal migration hypothesis suggests that the first North Americans may have been here as the oldest human remains known from Alaska or Canada are from On Your Knees Cave. Anthropologists have found striking parallels between the myths, rituals, and dwelling types of the Koryaks—inhabitants of the Kamchatka Peninsula—and those of the Native peoples of America&#39;s Northwest Coast. At this time the island was twice as large as today. There is strong genetic evidence for these early people having an origin there. The Koryaks were a matrilinear seafaring people hunting whales and other marine mammals. Their god was Kujkynnjaku, the Raven. Most of the Raven myths are similar to those of the Koryak.</p><br>
<p>The group of people inhabiting these Islands developed a culture made rich by the abundance of the land and sea. These people became the Haida. The Haida were a matriarchal society – the women made the decisions prior to European discovery. The Haida are a linguistically distinct group, and they have a complex class and rank system consisting of two main clans: Eagles and Ravens.</p><br>
<p>Links and diversity within the Haida Nation was gained through a cross lineal marriage system between the clans. This system was also important for the transfer of wealth within the Nation, with each clan reliant on the other for the building of longhouses, the carving of totem poles and other items of cultural importance.</p><br>
<p>Noted seafarers, the Haida occupied more than 100 villages throughout the Islands. The Haida were skilled traders, with established trade links with their neighboring First Nations on the mainland to California.</p><br>
<h3>Colonial era</h3><br>
<p>The archipelago was discovered by Europeans in 1774 by Juan Pérez, at Langara Island, and in 1778 by James Cook. In 1794, the Haida captured and sank a pair of European vessels, Ino and Resolution, that were seeking to trade for sea otter pelts. Most of the ships&#39; crew were killed. In 1851, the Haida captured the Georgiana, a ship carrying gold prospectors, and held its crew for ransom for nearly two months.</p><br>
<p>The islands played an important role during the maritime fur trade era of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. During most of that era the trade in the islands was dominated by Americans. The Oregon Treaty of 1846 put an end to American claims to the islands. Following the discovery of gold in the 1850s the British made efforts to exclude whatever American territorial claims might remain.</p><br>
<p>The Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands was a British colony constituting the archipelago of the same name from 1853 to July 1863, when it was amalgamated into the Colony of British Columbia.</p><br>
<p>The Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands was created by the Colonial Office in response to the increase in American marine trading activity resulting from the gold rush on Moresby Island in 1851.</p><br>
<p>No separate administration or capital for the colony was ever established, as its only officer or appointee was James Douglas, who was simultaneously Governor of Vancouver Island. In essence, the colony was merged with the Vancouver Island colony for administrative purposes from the 1850s to 1866 when the Colony of Vancouver Island was merged with the mainland, which until that point was the separate Colony of British Columbia.</p><br>
<h2>Naming</h2><br>
<p>The name Haida Gwaii is a modern coinage and was created in the early 1980s as an alternative to the colonial-era name "Queen Charlotte Islands", to recognize the history of the Haida people. "Haida Gwaii" means "islands of the people", while Haida on its own means not only "us" but also "people".</p><br>
<p>On December 11, 2009, the BC government announced that legislation would be introduced in mid-2010 to officially rename the Queen Charlotte Islands as Haida Gwaii. The legislation received royal assent on June 3, 2010, formalizing the name change. This name change is officially recognized by all levels of Canadian governments, and also by the United States&#39; National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency name database.</p><br>
<p>Still in use is the older name Xaadala Gwayee or, in alternative orthography, Xhaaidlagha Gwaayaai, meaning "islands at the boundary of the world". Xhaaydla ("worlds") refers here to the sea and sky.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>Research by Simon Fraser University concludes that Haida Gwaii around 55,000 BCE was likely covered with tundra and low meadows that were populated by grazing mammals including caribou and mammoths. Although no mammoth or mastodon fossils were found, the research discovered dung-eating fungi underground in ancient peat by the Cape Ball site in Naikoon Provincial Park on Graham Island. The tundra-like landscape then evolved to a mix of alpine forest and meadows.</p><br>
<p>The last Pleistocene glaciation receded from the archipelago about 16,000 BCE, about 2,000 years earlier than the rest of the British Columbia Coast&#39;s ice age. That, and its subsequent isolation from the mainland, encouraged Haida indigenous and environmental activists in the 1970s to use the term "Galápagos of the North", a unique biocultural zone with many endemic plants and animals. The climate of this temperate north hemisphere forested region, like that of much of the British Columbia and Alaskan coast in the area, is moderated by the North Pacific Current, with heavy rainfall and relatively mild temperatures throughout the year.</p><br>
<p>The islands are home to the Ta&#39;an Forest, with a wide variety of large endemic trees, including the Sitka spruce, western red cedar, yellow cedar (Nootka cypress), shore pine, western hemlock, mountain hemlock, and red alder. The Flora of the Queen Charlotte Islands describes plants from the islands.</p><br>
<p>Soils are variable. Peat is common in poorly drained flats and even on sloping ground in the wetter areas. Where drainage is good, the mature soils are podzols which have classic development (well defined eluvial horizon, Ae under Canadian classification) in undisturbed areas. A history of disturbance, as from logging or windthrow, sees the Ae mixed with other horizons and only patchily visible.</p><br>
<p>Kiidk&#39;yaas (Golden Spruce), a naturally occurring genetic-variant yellow-colour Sitka spruce tree, was near the Yakoun River, the largest on Graham Island. It was a popular tourist attraction until it was illegally cut down in 1997 as a protest against the industrial logging practices.</p><br>
<p>From the spring of 1996 until November 30, 1997 a popular attraction for tourists to the islands was the male albino White Raven. He lived around Port Clements and would commonly be seen taking food handouts from locals and visitors alike. He died after making contact with an electrical transformer. The White Raven was preserved by former Port Clements residents, taxidermists Roger Britten Sr. and Jr., and is on display in the Port Clements Historical Society&#39;s museum.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate is oceanic (Cfb), except near the summit of Mount Moresby where the climate is subpolar oceanic (Cfc). It is very similar to the climate of the west coast of Scotland in terms of average temperatures and precipitation, but the latitude is lower than the west coast of Scotland, it is 52° 39&#39;, the same as southern Ireland.</p><br>
<p>In the relatively shielded areas around Tlell and Sandspit annual rainfall averages from 1,200 mm to 1,400 mm.</p><br>
<p>Snowfall is generally moderate, averaging from 10 cm to 70 cm, though at northerly Langara Island it averages around 100 cm.</p><br>
<p>Precipitation is typically extremely frequent, occurring on around two-thirds of all days even in relatively shielded areas, and direct sunlight is scarce, averaging around 3 to 4 hours per day.</p><br>
<h3>2012 controversy around depositing iron in the ocean</h3><br>
<p>In July 2012, entrepreneur Russ George dispersed 100 ST of iron sulphate dust into the Pacific Ocean several hundred miles west of the islands of Haida Gwaii. The Old Massett Village Council was persuaded to finance this geoengineering project as a salmon enhancement project with $1 million in village funds.</p><br>
<p>Lawyers, environmentalists, and civil society groups are calling the dumping a "blatant violation" of two international moratoriums. George said that the Old Massett Village Council and its lawyers approved the effort and at least seven Canadian agencies were aware of it. In May 2013, the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation removed George as a director of the company and ended his employment. The 2013 salmon runs defied all expectations, more than quadrupling, from 50 million to 226 million fish. However, many environmental groups objected to the process.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<h3>Earthquake hazards</h3><br>
<p>The islands are located along the Queen Charlotte Fault, an active transform fault that produces significant earthquakes every 3–30 years. This is the result of the converging of the Pacific and North American Plates along the archipelago&#39;s west coast. Major earthquakes have occurred in the Haida Gwaii in 1949 and 2012. Though the region is prone to fair geological activity, there is little infrastructure set up to gather accurate information to warn locals of possible threats. Many residents, notably from First Nations communities, have been critical of the fact that they must rely on information coming from neighboring American states such as Washington or Alaska and from the USGS (United States Geological Survey). Regardless of the inconsistencies, Environment Canada does regularly do field tests across the Pacific coast of British Columbia relating to this matter.</p><br>
<p>The Cascadia subduction zone does pose some additional earthquake risks, but most importantly the subduction zone poses direct tsunami risks to the coastal settlements on the western side of the islands.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Visual arts</h3><br>
<p>The artwork known as Spirit of Haida Gwaii, by Bill Reid, is featured on the reverse of Canadian $20 bills produced between 2004 and 2011. It depicts a Haida chief in a canoe, accompanied by the mythic messengers Raven, Frog and Eagle (the first casting of this sculpture, Spirit of Haida Gwaii: The Black Canoe, is on display in the atrium of the Canadian Embassy in Washington DC, the other, Spirit of Haida Gwaii: the Jade Canoe, is on display in Vancouver Airport). Haida art is also frequently seen on large monumental-sized cedar totem poles and dugout canoes, hand-crafted gold and silver jewellery, and even as cartoons in the form of Haida manga.</p><br>
<h3>Haida language</h3><br>
<p>The Haida language was proposed for classification as part of the Nadene family of languages on the basis of a few similarities with Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit. Many linguists, however, consider the evidence insufficient and continue to regard Haida as a language isolate. All 50 remaining speakers of Haida are over 70 years old. Telus and Gwaii Trust recently completed a project to bring broadband internet to the island via a 150 km microwave relay. This enables interactive research to be carried out on the more than 80 CDs of language, story and spoken history of the people.</p><br>
<h3>In popular culture</h3><br>
<p>Haida Gwaii has been featured in The Nature of Things documentaries since the 1970s due to its unique forest and ecosystem. Many wildlife and adventure tourism TV series (in the US and Canada) have also featured the islands since the 1990s, reflecting the islands as a globe trekking location.</p><br>
<p>Haida Gwaii and its people are the subject of the documentary Haida Gwaii: On the Edge of the World.</p><br>
<p>They are a location in the novel Generation A by Douglas Coupland.</p><br>
<p>Haida Gwaii generally and Ninstints particularly are key locations in Louise Penny&#39;s novel The Brutal Telling.</p><br>
<p>Poet Robert Bringhurst published a series of translations of stories as told by the mythtellers Ghandl and Skaay.</p><br>
<p>Portions of the book The Silver Totem of Shame, by Canadian author R.J. Harlick, are set in Haida Gwaii.</p><br>
<p>Sailing in Haida Gwaii is featured in Robin Esrock&#39;s bestselling book The Great Canadian Bucket List.</p><br>
<p>Mount Eeries 2017 album A Crow Looked at Me references singer Phil Elverums trip to Haida Gwaii on the song "Ravens".</p><br>
<p>Masters of the Northwest, a two-hour documentary mainly featuring Haida Gwaii was broadcast by the Ontario educational TV network in September, 2017</p><br>
<p>http://tvo.org/programs/masters-of-the-pacific-coast-tribes-of-the-northwest</p><br>
<p>Lake Lugano  is a glacial lake which is situated on the border between southern Switzerland and northern Italy. The lake, named after the city of Lugano, is situated between Lake Como and Lago Maggiore. It was cited for the first time by Gregory of Tours in 590 with the name Ceresio, a name which is said to have derived from the Latin word cerasus, meaning cherry, and refers to the abundance of cherry trees which at one time adorned the shores of the lake. The lake appears in documents in 804 under the name Laco Luanasco.</p><br>
<p>Well-known mountains and tourist destinations on the shores of the lake are Monte Brè to the east, Monte San Salvatore west of Lugano, and Monte Generoso on the south-east shore. The World Heritage Site Monte San Giorgio is situated south of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first certain testimony of a political body governing the shores of the lake is from 818. Occupying an area of strategic importance, the lake was then part of the feudal dominion of the County of Sperio. Circa 1000, it came under the control of the Bishop of Como. The region was the site of the war between Como and Milan over control of Alpine traffic from 1218 to 1227. As the lake and its shores became progressively incorporated into the Duchy of Milan they became the subject of political and territorial contention during the 15th century, and Lugano became the lake&#39;s main town.</p><br>
<p>The lake definitively ceased to belong to a single sovereign political entity following the establishment of the transalpine bailiwicks of the Swiss cantons at the beginning of the 16th century. The Italian-Swiss border was fixed in 1752 by the Treaty of Varese, and has since remained virtually unchanged.</p><br>
<p>In 1848, the Melide causeway was built on a moraine between Melide and Bissone, in order to carry a road across the lake and provide a direct connection between Lugano and Chiasso. Today the causeway also carries the Gotthard railway and the A2 motorway.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The lake is 48.7 km&sup2; in size, 63% of which is in Switzerland and 37% in Italy, has an average width of roughly 1 km, a maximum depth of 288 m found in the northern basin. The culminating point of the lake&#39;s drainage basin is the Pizzo di Gino summit in the Lugano Prealps (2,245 m). Bathing in the lake is allowed at any of the 50 or so bathing establishments located along the Swiss shores.</p><br>
<p>The Italian exclave of Campione d&#39;Italia and parts of the waters of the lake are considered by European Customs Law as non-territorial for fiscal purposes and as such enjoy a special tax status as a duty-free area, exemption from EU VAT</p><br>
<p>and offer residents other advantageous tax privileges.</p><br>
<p>The Melide causeway separates the northern (27.5 km&sup2;) and southern (21.4 km&sup2;) basins, although a bridge in the causeway permits water flow and navigation. The lake retention time is an average of 8.2 years; that of the northern basin (11.9 years) is considerably higher than the southern one (2.3 years).</p><br>
<p>Places on the lake in Switzerland (CH) and in Italy (I) include (from Lugano, clockwise):</p><br>
<h2>Navigation</h2><br>
<p>The lake is navigable, and used by a considerable number of private vessels. Passenger boats of the Società Navigazione del Lago di Lugano (SNL) provide services on the lake, principally for tourist purposes, but also connecting Lugano with other lakeside communities, some of which have no road access.</p><br>
<p>Fishery in the lake (and Lake Maggiore) is regulated by a 1986 agreement between Switzerland and Italy. The current agreement on navigation dates from 1992.</p><br>
<h2>Pollution</h2><br>
<p>Pollution has long been a problem in Lake Lugano. In the 1960s and 1970s it was officially forbidden to bathe in the lake. Despite the continued introduction of sewage treatment plants such as in Gandria, factors such as lake retention time and lack of oxygen and increasing phosphorus concentrations means it is unclear if the lake will recover.</p><br>
<p>The Federal Office for the Environment&#39;s last published report on Lake Lugano dates from 1995. To summarise that report:</p><br>
<p>at that time measurements indicated some improvement, but this was unlikely to continue at the same pace</p><br>
<p>there were almost permanent polluted layers at the bottom of the very deep lake</p><br>
<p>oxygen was scarce and could not be found below 100 m depth</p><br>
<p>as a result phosphorus levels were increasing at this depth</p><br>
<p>phosphorus levels in the northern basin were six times too high and in the southern basin twice too high</p><br>
<p>will take many decades to clean</p><br>
<p>the lake could be said to be "chronically sick"</p><br>
<p>in the Italian part of the lake only 20% of the population were connected to sewage treatment plants with phosphorus filters (not that all Swiss areas were connected either).</p><br>
<p>The Swiss-Italian organisation CIPAIS in its most recent published report says:</p><br>
<p>The Italian environmental group Legambiente, in its 2007 study of all northern Italian lakes, found Lake Lugano to be the most polluted of all.</p><br>
<p>According to Legambiente, the only reason swimming was not banned on the Italian Lakes was because the state of Lombardy changed the law. They state that pollution levels in the lakes do not conform to European rulings and the lack of sewage treatment is illegal.</p><br>
<p>Their 2010 measurements found samples taken at Ponte Tresa, Ostene and Port Ceresio to be "heavily polluted" (more than 1,000 UFC/100 ml intestinal enterococci and/or greater than 2000 UFC/100 ml E. coli).</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>The lake is full of fish. Apart from a few protected areas, such as the mouth of the River Cuccio in Porlezza, fishing is allowed anywhere, although according to various regulations. Protected species are the bleak and the white clawed crayfish (Austropotamobius pallipes). The bleak is almost extinct here, unlike in Lago Maggiore, and planning is under way for the controlled repopulation of the lake, particularly around Ponte Tresa.</p><br>
<p>In 1895 the brook trout was introduced from Lake Zug, while between 1894 and 1897 the common whitefish was introduced. Since 1950 attempts have been made to introduce the whitefish Coregonus macrophthalmus from Lake Neuchâtel, but it has not established itself effectively.</p><br>
<p>The Common Roach is present in large numbers and took around ten years to colonise the entire lake, thereby replacing the bleak. Still present are the European chub, tench, carp and a few examples of European perch, largemouth bass, zander and burbot. Recently the wels catfish has also been spotted, and the pigo has also been spotted too.</p><br>
<h2>Fossils</h2><br>
<p>The whole area behind the southern shores of Lake Lugano is rich in fossils. The focal point of these fossil deposits is Monte San Giorgio, where since the 19th century many fossils have been found dating from the mid-Triassic (around 220 million years ago). The deposits on Monte San Giorgio stretch towards the west into Italian territory and the deposits of Besano. Fossils dating from the early Jurassic (around 180 million years ago) have also been found along the southern shores but more towards the east and Osteno.</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<p>Misti, also known as Putina or Guagua Putina is a stratovolcano of andesite, dacite and rhyolite located in southern Peru near the city of Arequipa. With its seasonally snow-capped, symmetrical cone, Misti stands at 5,822 m above sea level and lies between mount Chachani  and Pichu Pichu volcano . Its last eruption was in 1985, 198 years after its previous documented eruption.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Misti has three concentric craters. Active fumaroles, or volcanic gas vents, can be seen in the inner crater. Near the inner crater, six Inca mummies and rare Inca artifacts were found in 1998 during a month-long excavation directed by archaeologists Johan Reinhard and Jose Antonio Chavez. These findings are currently stored at the Museo de Santuarios Andinos in Arequipa.</p><br>
<p>There are two main climbing routes on the volcano. The Pastores route starts at 3,300 m. Usually a camp is made at 4,500 m at Nido de Aguilas. The Aguada Blanca route starts at 4,000 m near the Aguada Blanca reservoir, and a camp is made at 4,800 m at Monte Blanco (the camp is named after Mont Blanc, the summit of which is approximately the same elevation as the camp). Neither climbing routes presents technical difficulties, but both are considered strenuous because of the steep loose sand slopes.</p><br>
<h2>Surrounding area</h2><br>
<p>A long history of eruptions from Misti and its neighbour volcanoes has caused the local soil to be extremely fertile, making the surrounding area one of the most agriculturally productive in Peru. Locals also make extensive use of a white volcanic rock called sillar, which is strong but easily workable. The city of Arequipa has a significant number of buildings constructed with sillar, resulting in the nickname la ciudad blanca, or "the white city".</p><br>
<p>Phaistos , also transliterated as Phaestos, Festos and Latin Phaestus, currently refers to a Bronze Age archaeological site at modern Phaistos, a municipality in south central Crete. Ancient Phaistos was located about 5.6 km east of the Mediterranean Sea and 62 km south of Heraklio, the second largest city of Minoan Crete. The name Phaistos survives from ancient Greek references to a city in Crete of that name at or near the current ruins.</p><br>
<p>The name is substantiated by the coins of the classical city. They display motifs such as Europa sitting on a bull, Talos with wings, Heracles without beard and being crowned, or Zeus in a form of a naked youth sitting on a tree. On either the obverse or the reverse the name of the city, or its abbreviation, is inscribed, such as ΦΑΙΣ or ΦΑΙΣΤΙ, for Phaistos or Phaistios ("Phaistian" adjective) written either right-to-left or left-to-right. These few dozen coins were acquired by collectors from uncontrolled contexts. They give no information on the location of Phaistos.</p><br>
<p>Phaistos was located by Thomas Abel Brimage Spratt, commander of the Spitfire, a paddle steamer, in the Mediterranean Survey of 1853, which surveyed the topography, settlements and monuments of Crete. Spratt followed the directions of Strabo, who said:Of the three cities that were united under one metropolis by Minos, the third, which was Phaestus, was razed to the ground by the Gortynians; it is sixty stadia distant from Gortyn, twenty from the sea, and forty from the seaport Matalum; and the country is held by those who razed it.</p><br>
<p>The simple geometric problem posed by these distances from known points was solved with no difficulty by the survey. The location pinpointed was the eastern end of a hill, or ridge, rising from the middle of the Yeropotamos river valley extending from the sea to the Messara Plain in an east-west direction. The hill was called Kastri ("fort", "small castle"). A military man, Spratt understood the significance of the location immediately:I thus found that Phaestus had occupied the extremity of a ridge that divides the maritime plain of Debaki from the plain of the Messara, so as to command the narrow valley of communication....</p><br>
<p>A village of 16 houses remained on the ridge, but the vestiges of fortification walls indicated a city had once existed there. A half-century later, on removing the houses, Federico Halbherr and his crew began to discover the remains of an extensive palace complex. As he had begun excavation before Evans at Knossos in 1900, he did not have the advantage of Arthur Evans&#39; concepts of Minoan civilization nor the knowledge acquired after the decipherment of the Linear B syllabary by Michael Ventris. Excavation ended in 1904, to begin again after another half-century, in 1950. By this time it was understood that the palace had been constructed at the beginning of the Proto-Palace Period, along with all the others. After 1955 the place name, 𐀞𐀂𐀵, pa-i-to, interpreted as Phaistos (written in Mycenaean Greek), began to turn up in the Linear B tablets at Knossos, then under the Mycenaean Greeks. There was every reason to think that pa-i-to was located at Kastri.</p><br>
<p>No Linear B has been found at Phaistos, and yet tradition and the Knossos tablets suggest that Phaistos was a dependency of Knossos. Moreover, only a few pieces of Linear A have been found. As Phaistos appears to have been an administrative center, the lack of records is paradoxical. However, the lack of an expected event is not an argument for any conclusion. There are many possible reasons for the deficit. Records may yet be found.</p><br>
<h2>Excavation</h2><br>
<p>In 1908, Pernier found the Phaistos disc at the basements of the northern group of the palace. This artifact is a clay disk, dated to between 1950 BC and 1400 BC and impressed with a unique sophisticated hieroglyphic script. The tombs of the rulers of Phaistos were found in the cemetery that was discovered 20 minutes away from the palace remains.</p><br>
<h2>Bronze Age</h2><br>
<p>Phaistos was inhabited from about 4000 BC. A palace, dating from the Middle Bronze Age, was destroyed by an earthquake during the Late Bronze Age. Knossos along with other Minoan sites was destroyed at that time. The palace was rebuilt toward the end of the Late Bronze Age.</p><br>
<p>The first palace was built about 2000 BC. This section is on a lower level than the west courtyard and has a nice facade with a plastic outer shape, a cobbled courtyard, and a tower ledge with a ramp, which leads up to a higher level. The old palace was destroyed three times in a time period of about three centuries. After the first and second disaster, reconstruction and repairs were made, so there are distinguished three construction phases.</p><br>
<p>Around 1400 BC, the invading Achaeans destroyed Phaistos, as well as Knossos. The palace appears to have been unused thereafter, as evidence of the Mycenaean era have not been found.</p><br>
<p>The Old Palace was built in the Protopalatial Period, then rebuilt twice due to extensive earthquake damage. When the palace was destroyed by earthquakes, the re-builders constructed a New Palace atop the old.</p><br>
<p>Several artifacts with Linear A inscriptions were excavated at this site. The name of the site also appears in partially deciphered Linear A texts, and is probably similar to Mycenaean PA-I-TO as written in Linear B. Several kouloura structures (subsurface pits) have been found at Phaistos. Pottery has been recovered at Phaistos from in the Middle and Late Minoan periods, including polychrome items and embossing in imitation of metal work. Bronze Age works from Phaistos include bridge spouted bowls, eggshell cups, tall jars and large pithoi.</p><br>
<p>In one of the three hills of the area, remains of the middle neolithic age have been found, and a part of the palace which built during the Early Minoan period. Another two palaces seems to have been built at the Middle and Late Minoan Age. The older looks like the minoan palace of Knossos, although this is smaller. On its ruins (probably destroyed by an earthquake around 1600 BC) a palace of the later minoan period was built, bigger and magnificent. This mansion consists from several rooms separated by columns.</p><br>
<p>The levels of the theater area, in conjunction with two splendid staircases, gave a grand access to the main hall of the Propylaea with the high doors. A twin gate led directly to the central courtyard through a street with a large</p><br>
<p>width. The splendour of the rooms interior owed to the investment of the floors and walls with plates of sand and white gypsum stone. To the upper floors of the west sector existed spacious ceremonies rooms, although their exact restoration was not possible.</p><br>
<p>A brilliant entrance from the central courtyard was leading to the royal apartments in the north part of the palace, which they had view to the tops of Psiloritis, while for their construction had been used alabaster among other materials. For the princes particular rooms were used, smaller and less luxurious than the rooms of the royal departments.</p><br>
<h2>Iron Age</h2><br>
<p>References to Phaistos in ancient Greek literature are quite frequent. Phaistos is first referenced by Homer as "well populated", and the Homeric epics indicate its participation in the Trojan war. The historian Diodorus Siculus indicates that Phaistos, together with Knossos and Kydonia, are the three towns that were founded by the king Minos on Crete. Instead, Pausanias and Stephanus of Byzantium supported in their texts that the founder of the city was Phaestos, son of Hercules or Ropalus. The city of Phaistos is associated with the mythical king of Crete Rhadamanthys.</p><br>
<p>The new inhabitance began during the Geometric Age and continued to historical times (8th century BC onwards), up to the 3rd century, when the city was finally destroyed by neighboring Gortyn.</p><br>
<p>Phaistos had its own currency and had created an alliance with other autonomous Cretan cities, and with the king of Pergamon Eumenes II. Around the end of the 3rd century BC, Phaestos was destroyed by the Gortynians and since then ceased to exist in the history of Crete. Scotia Aphrodite and goddess Leto, who was also called Phytia, were worshiped there. The people of Phaistos were distinguished for their funny adages. Phaistian in his descent was Epimenides who was the wise man who had been invited by the Athenians to clean the city from the Cylonian affair (Cyloneio agos) in the 6th century BC.</p><br>
<p>Espiritu Santo is the largest island in the nation of Vanuatu, with an area of 3,955.5 km&sup2; and a population of around 40,000 according to the 2009 census.</p><br>
<p>It belongs to the archipelago of the New Hebrides in the Pacific region of Melanesia. It is in the Sanma Province of Vanuatu. The town of Luganville, on Espiritu Santos southeast coast, is Vanuatus second-largest settlement and the provincial capital. Roads run north and west from Luganville but most of the island is far from the limited road network.</p><br>
<p>Vanuatu&#39;s highest peak is the 1879 metre (6165 foot) Mount Tabwemasana in west-central Espiritu Santo.</p><br>
<p>In 1998, Santo hosted the Melanesia Cup.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>A Spanish expedition led by Portuguese explorer Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, established a settlement in 1606 at Big Bay on the north side of the island. Espiritu Santo takes its name from Queirós, who named the entire island group La del Espíritu Santo in acknowledgment of the Spanish king&#39;s descent from the royal House of Austria, and believing he had arrived in the Great Southern Continent, Terra Australis. During the time of the British–French Condominium, Hog Harbour, on the northeast coast, was the site of the British district administration, while Segond, near Luganville was the French district administration.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, particularly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the island was used by Allied forces as a military supply and support base, naval harbor, and airfield. In highly fictionalized form, it is the locale of James Micheners Tales of the South Pacific and the subsequent Rodgers and Hammerstein musical, South Pacific. The presence of the Allies later contributed to the islands diving tourism, as the United States dumped most of their equipment and refuse at what is now known as Million Dollar Point. Another wreck off Espiritu Santo, the SS President Coolidge, is also a popular diving spot. The SS President Coolidge was a converted luxury liner that hit a mine during the war.</p><br>
<p>Between May and August 1980 the island was the site of a rebellion during the transfer of power over the colonial New Hebrides from the condominium to independent Vanuatu. Jimmy Stevens Nagriamel movement, in alliance with private French interests and backed by the Phoenix Foundation and American libertarians hoping to establish a tax-free haven, declared the island of Espiritu Santo independent of the new government. A Republic of Vemerana was proclaimed on May 28. France recognized the independence on June 3. On June 5 the tribal chiefs of Santo named the French Ambassador Philippe Allonneau "King of Vemerana", Jimmy Stevens became Prime Minister. Luganville is renamed Allonneaupolis. But negotiations with Port-Vila failed and from July 27 to August 18, British Royal Marines and a unit of the French Garde Mobile were deployed to the Vanuatus capital island but did not invade Espiritu Santo as the soon-to-be government had hoped. The troops were recalled shortly before independence. Following independence, Vanuatu, now governed by Father Walter Lini, requested assistance from Papua New Guinea, whose forces invaded and conquered Espiritu Santo.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Santo, with many wrecks and reefs to be explored, is a very popular tourist destination for divers. Champagne Beach draws tourists with its white sand and clear waters. The "Western Side" of the island contains many caves which may be explored, and cruise ships often stop in at Luganville.</p><br>
<p>The local people make their living by supporting the tourist trade, by cash-crop farming, mostly copra but some cacao and kava as well as peanuts, or by subsistence farming and fishing.</p><br>
<p>Most Santo people are Christians. The largest church groups on the island are the Presbyterian Church of Vanuatu, the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of Melanesia (Anglican). Also active are the Apostolic Church, the Church of Christ, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and others. However, in many villages, particularly in Big Bay and South Santo, the people are "heathen", a term that in Vanuatu has no pejorative connotation — it simply denotes someone who has not embraced Christianity. Customary beliefs of a more modern sort are found among followers of the Nagriamel movement based in Fanafo.</p><br>
<p>For almost all Santo&#39;s people custom plays a large part in their lives, regardless of their religion. The chief system continues strongly in most areas.</p><br>
<p>The people of Santo face some health problems, especially malaria, and tuberculosis. Although there is a hospital, most locals consult either their own witch doctor or medical clinics set up by western missionaries. Kava is the popular drug of the island, although alcohol is becoming more prevalent. With the rising number of adults using alcohol, there is a rising crime rate, especially involving violence toward women, and tribal warfare.</p><br>
<h2>Economy and infrastructure</h2><br>
<p>Luganville is the only true town on the island; the rest of the island is dotted with small villages. From Luganville, three ‘main’ roads emerge. Main Street leaves the town to the west and winds along the south coast of the island for about 40 km ending at the village of Tasiriki on the southwest coast. Canal Road runs along the south and east coast of the island, north through Hog Harbor and Golden Beach, ending at Port Olry. Big Bay Highway splits off from Canal Road near Turtle Bay on the east coast, runs generally west to the mountains, and then leads north to Big Bay. The airport is about five km east from the center of Luganville. Numerous rivers run to the coastline from the mountains of the island. The Sarakata River is one of the largest and runs through Luganville.</p><br>
<p>Many people on Espiritu Santo still rely on subsistence farming for their food. The villages on the island are mostly self-sufficient with their own vegetable gardens, chickens and pigs. Taro and yam are commonly grown in these gardens, and are mainstays of the local diet.</p><br>
<p>Santo is home to a number of cattle farms (including the famous Belmol Cattle Project, originally established by French settlers) and exports much of its beef to Japan, Australia and other Pacific Island countries.</p><br>
<p>Besides beef, tin fish and rice, bought in town, Santo has many foods that locals take for granted and that tourists enjoy as delicacies. Among these are sweet pineapples, mangoes, island cabbage, flying fox and coconut crab, as well as local nuts such as natapoa and the sweet fleshy-fruit nouse. There is a market in Luganville where local food such as manioc, taro, yam, cabbage and other freshly grown island staples are sold. Several small supermarkets such as LCM, Unity Shell and Au bon Marche, sell groceries and many packaged goods.</p><br>
<h2>Biodiversity</h2><br>
<p>The island of Espiritu Santo is home to all of Vanuatus endemic birds, including the Santo mountain starling, a species restricted entirely to Santo. Two protected areas have been established to safeguard the islands biodiversity; the Loru Conservation Area on the east coast and the Vatthe Conservation area near Big Bay in the north.</p><br>
<p>The Loru Rainforest Protected Area is situated in the lowland rainforests of Santo. Established in 1993 by Chief Caleb Ser, the 220 hectare reserve supports a rich variety of Vanuatu&#39;s bird, bat and plant life as well as a diverse range of marine species in the two-kilometre stretch of fringing reef.</p><br>
<p>Isla de la Juventud</p><br>
<p>(; Isle of Youth) is the second-largest Cuban island and the seventh-largest island in the West Indies (after Cuba itself, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, and Andros Island). The island was called the Isle of Pines (Isla de Pinos) until 1978. It has an area 2,200 km&sup2; and is 50 km south of the island of Cuba, across the Gulf of Batabanó. The island lies almost directly south of Havana and Pinar del Río and is a Special Municipality (2,419 km&sup2;), not part of any province and is therefore administered directly by the central government of Cuba. The island has only one municipality, also named Isla de la Juventud.</p><br>
<p>The largest of the 350 islands in the Canarreos Archipelago (Archipiélago de los Canarreos), the island has an estimated population of 100,000. The capital and largest city is Nueva Gerona in the north, and the second-largest and oldest city is Santa Fe in the interior. Other communities include Columbia, La Demajagua (formerly Santa Bárbara), Mac Kinley, Cuchilla Alta, Punta del Este, Sierra de Caballos and Sierra de Casas.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Little is known of the pre-Columbian history of the island, though a cave complex near the Punta del Este beach preserves 235 ancient drawings made by the native population. The island first became known to Europeans in 1494 during Christopher Columbus&#39;s second voyage to the New World. Columbus named the island La Evangelista and claimed it for Spain. The island was also known as Isla de Cotorras (Isle of Parrots) and Isla de Tesoros (Treasure Island) at various points in its history.</p><br>
<p>Pirate activity in and around the area left its trace in English literature. Both Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson and Peter Pan by J. M. Barrie draw on accounts of the island and its native and pirate inhabitants, as well as the long dugout canoes that both pirates and the indigenous peoples used and the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus).</p><br>
<p>Following its defeat in the Spanish–American War and the Cuban War of Independence, Spain dropped all claims to Cuba under the terms of the 1898 Treaty of Paris. The Platt Amendment of 1901, which defined Cuba&#39;s boundaries for the purposes of U.S. authorities, left the U.S. position on sovereignty over Isla de la Juventud undetermined. This led to competing claims to the island by the United States and Cuba. In 1907, the U.S. Supreme Court decided, in Pearcy v. Stranahan, that control of the island was a political decision, not a judicial one. In 1916, a pamphlet titled "Isle of Pines: American or What?" called for the U.S. to annex or purchase the island to settle the issue.</p><br>
<p>In 1904, Cuba and the United States negotiated and signed the Hay-Quesada Treaty, which recognized Cuba&#39;s sovereignty over the island. The U.S. Senate ratified this agreement on March 13, 1925, over the objections of some four hundred United States citizens and companies, who owned or controlled about 95% of the island&#39;s land.</p><br>
<p>Prior to 1976, the island was part of La Habana Province. With the political and administrative reorganization of Cuban provinces in 1976, the island was given the status of "special municipality."</p><br>
<p>Fidel Castro presided at a ceremony changing the name of the island from Isla de Pinos to Isla de la Juventud on 3 August 1978. This was the realization of a promise that he had made in 1967, when he said, “Let’s call it the Isle of Youth when the youth have done something grand with their work here, when they have revolutionized the natural environment, when they see the fruits of their labor and have revolutionized society here.”</p><br>
<h2>Geography and economy</h2><br>
<p>Much of the island is covered in pine forests, which is the source of the island&#39;s large lumber industry. The northern region of the island has low ridges from which marble is quarried, while the southern region is an elevated plain. Agriculture and fishing are the island&#39;s main industries, with citrus fruit and vegetables being grown. A black sand beach was formed by volcanic activity.</p><br>
<p>The island has a mild climate, but is known for frequent hurricanes. It is a popular tourist destination, with many beaches and resorts, including Bibijagua Beach. Until the Cuban government expropriated all foreign-owned property in the early 1960s, much land was owned by Americans, and the island contained a branch of the Hilton Hotels chain.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>In 2004, the Special Municipality of Isla de la Juventud had a population of 86,637. With a total area of 2,419.27 km&sup2;, the Municipality had a population density of 35.8 /km2.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The main transportation to the island is by boat or aircraft. Hydrofoils (kometas) and motorized catamarans will make the trip in between two and three hours, from Batabano to Nueva Gerona. A much slower and larger cargo ferry takes around six hours to make the crossing, but is cheaper.</p><br>
<h2>Prisons</h2><br>
<p>In 1926, Cuba erected a model penitentiary of panopticon design on the outskirts of Nueva Gerona, Presidio Modelo, 1926 and 1928. Cuban leader Fidel Castro, after leading the failed attack on the Moncada Barracks July 1953, was imprisoned in it from 1953 to 1955 by the regime of Fulgencio Batista, as was his brother Raúl. Following the Cuban Revolution, the same facility was used to imprison the new regime&#39;s enemies and political dissidents. They included Huber Matos, an officer in the revolutionary army who attempted to resign and who said he was tortured there, and Armando Valladares, who wrote a memoir describing the prison&#39;s harsh conditions and cruel treatment of prisoners of conscience and political prisoners.</p><br>
<p>Presidio Modelo ceased functioning as a prison in 1967. It has been declared a national monument and its hospital rooms converted into a museum. Its functions are now carried out in more modern facilities, including one minimum security prison (Prison El Guayabo) and four correctional facilities: Center for Reeducation of Minors, Correctional Los Colonos, Paquito Rosales Cueto (1 y 11), and Prison la 60 (Columbia)</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Windsor Ruins are in Claiborne County in the USA state of Mississippi, about 10 mi southwest of Port Gibson near Alcorn State University. The ruins consist of 23 standing Corinthian columns of the largest antebellum Greek Revival mansion ever built in the state. The mansion stood from 1861 to 1890, when it was destroyed by fire. The 2.1 acres site was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971 and was designated a Mississippi Landmark in 1985.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Background</h3><br>
<p>Windsor mansion was located on a plantation that covered 2,600 acre. The mansion was constructed between 1859 and 1861 for Smith Coffee Daniell II, who was born in Mississippi and had acquired great wealth as a cotton planter by age 30. In 1849, Smith Daniell married his cousin Catherine Freeland (1830–1903). The couple had six children, with three surviving to adulthood.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Windsor mansion was built facing the Mississippi River and was located about 4 mi east of the river. Although much of the basic construction of Windsor mansion was accomplished by Smith Daniell&#39;s slaves, architect David Shroder supervised a crew of skilled artisans—carpenters, plasterers, masons, and painters—from Mississippi, northeastern states, and Europe to do finishing work on the mansion.</p><br>
<p>The footprint for Windsor mansion was set by 29 columns which supported a projected roof line that protected 9 ft wide verandas on the second and third floors. The 29 columns were constructed of bricks that were covered with stucco. Each column was more than 3.5 ft in diameter at their base and stood 40 ft tall. The columns were constructed atop 10 ft tall, paneled brick plinths that were almost 5 ft square. Bricks were made in an onsite kiln. The fluted columns were crowned with ornate, iron Corinthian capitals, and the columns were joined at the height of the third floor by ornamental iron balustrades.</p><br>
<p>Column capitals, balustrades, and four cast iron stairways were manufactured in St. Louis and shipped down the Mississippi River to the Port of Bruinsburg, about 2 mi west of Windsor mansion.</p><br>
<h3>Description</h3><br>
<p>Windsor mansion was constructed as a 3-story block, consisting of a ground floor basement, with living quarters on the second and third floors. The main block was 64 ft on each side. A 3-story ell projected from the east side of the main block. The ell measured 59 ft by 26.5 ft. Archeological examination suggests that outer walls were constructed of wood covered in stucco. When completed, the 17,000 ft2 mansion contained three hallways and 23 to 25 rooms, each with its own fireplace. A featured innovation for that time period was the inclusion of two interior bathrooms supplied with rainwater from a tank in the attic.</p><br>
<p>In 1861, cost of construction was about $175,000 (equal to $ today).</p><br>
<p>The ground floor basement contained a school room, doctor’s office, dairy, commissary, and storage rooms. The second floor had a hallway flanked by the master bedroom, a bathroom, two parlors, a study and a library. In the ell off the second floor was the dining room. Connected to the dining room by a dumbwaiter was the kitchen, located on the ground floor. The third floor contained an additional bath and eight more bedrooms. Eight chimneys extended from the slate-covered roof, and a domed cupola with glass walls was constructed above the attic, over the main block of the mansion.</p><br>
<p>On April 28, 1861, Smith Daniell died at age 34, just weeks after construction of the mansion was completed.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War era</h3><br>
<p>Once the American Civil War began in 1861, Confederate forces used the Windsor mansion cupola as an observation platform and signal station. In the spring of 1863, as part of his Vicksburg campaign, Ulysses S. Grant and 17,000 Union troops landed at the port of Bruinsburg and took control of Windsor mansion. Following the Battle of Port Gibson, the mansion was used by Union troops as a hospital and as an observation station. The Daniell family was allowed to live on the third floor of the mansion during the Union occupation.</p><br>
<p>Windsor mansion survived the war and continued to be used by the Daniell family as a home and for social gatherings in the area. During Reconstruction, the family derived income by leasing part of their vast land holdings.</p><br>
<p>For more than 100 years, the outward appearance of Windsor mansion was a matter of conjecture. But in the early 1990s, an 1863 sketch of Windsor mansion was discovered in the papers of a former Union officer, Henry Otis Dwight, of the 20th Ohio Infantry. Historians believe that Henry Dwight made the sketch while his unit was encamped on the grounds of the mansion.</p><br>
<h3>Fire</h3><br>
<p>On February 17, 1890, a fire started on the third floor when, according to tradition, a guest dropped ashes from a cigarette or cigar into construction debris left by carpenters who were making repairs. Windsor mansion was destroyed leaving only the columns, balustrades, cast iron stairways, and pieces of bone china.</p><br>
<h2>Historic site</h2><br>
<p>When Catherine Daniell died in 1903, her daughter, Priscilla Daniell, inherited the mansion property. Priscilla married Joseph Magruder, and the mansion site remained in the Magruder family until 1974, when they donated 2.1 acre, containing the mansion ruins, to the state of Mississippi. The historic site contains 23 standing columns and 5 partial columns; it is administered by the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.</p><br>
<p>Through the years, three of the cast iron stairways, that survived the 1890 fire, disappeared from the site. The fourth stairway was moved to Alcorn State University and serves as the entrance to Oakland Memorial Chapel.</p><br>
<p>North of Windsor ruins is a cemetery where members of the Daniell and Freeland families have been buried since the early 19th century. The earliest grave is that of Frisby Freeland (1747 – 1819), an American Revolutionary War soldier.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Windsor&#39;s ruins have appeared in two motion pictures—Raintree County (1957) and Ghosts of Mississippi (1996).</p><br>
<p>The Boston Mountains range is a high and deeply dissected plateau located in northern Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma. The Oklahoma portion of the range is locally referred to as the Cookson Hills. The range covers an area of 5,770 square miles. The rocks of the region are essentially little disturbed, flat-lying sedimentary layers of the Paleozoic age. The highest ridges and peaks are capped by Pennsylvanian sandstone and shale. The deeply eroded valleys are cut into Mississippian limestones and below that layer Ordovician dolomites.</p><br>
<h2>General description</h2><br>
<p>The Boston Mountains form the southwestern part of the Ozark plateau where they are the highest portion of the Ozarks. Summits can reach elevations of just over 2,560 feet with valleys 500 feet to 1,550 feet deep. Turner Ward Knob (TWK) is the highest named peak. Located in western Newton County, Arkansas, its elevation is 2,463 ft. Nearby, five unnamed peaks have elevations at or slightly above 2,560 ft. Two of these highest peaks are located 2.2 miles west of Turner Ward Knob, one being the location of the Buffalo Lookout fire tower at 2,561 ft. The other three highest peaks are located 4–5 miles southsouthwest of Turner Ward Knob along Arkansas Highway 16.</p><br>
<h2>Rivers and streams</h2><br>
<p>The Boston Mountains are the source of rivers and streams that flow out from the mountains in all directions. Within a 3 mile radius of a point just west of the summits discussed above are located the sources of the White River, the Buffalo River, the Kings River, War Eagle Creek, and Little Mulberry Creek. Other rivers and streams having their headwaters in the Boston Mountains include the Illinois River, the Mulberry River, Lee Creek, Frog Bayou, Big Piney Creek, Illinois Bayou, and the Little Red River. To the south, the Arkansas River valley separates the Boston Mountains from the Ouachita Mountains.</p><br>
<p>In Arkansas, the Boston Mountains are found in the following counties: Boone, Carroll, Cleburne, Conway, Crawford, Franklin, Independence, Johnson, Madison, Newton, Pope, Searcy, Stone, Van Buren, and Washington.</p><br>
<p>In Oklahoma, the Boston Mountains are found in these counties: Adair, Cherokee, Muskogee, Sequoyah, and Wagoner.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and physiography</h2><br>
<p>The Boston Mountains are a physiographic section of the larger Ozark Plateaus province, which in turn is part of the larger Interior Highlands physiographic division.</p><br>
<p>The area is underlain by Pennsylvanian sandstone, shale, and siltstone, where some folding and faulting has occurred. The sandstone beds become thinner, but more shaly in the west as the mountains decline in elevation.</p><br>
<p>The Greater Antilles is a grouping of the larger islands in the Caribbean Sea: Cuba, Hispaniola , Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and the Cayman Islands.</p><br>
<p>The Greater Antilles constitute nearly 90% of the land mass of the entire West Indies, as well as over 90% of its population. The remainder of the land belongs to the archipelago of the Lesser Antilles, which is a chain of islands to the east (running north-south and encompassing the eastern edge of the Caribbean Sea where it meets the Atlantic Ocean) and south (running east-west off the northern coast of South America).</p><br>
<p>The word Antilles originated in the period before the European conquest of the New World - Europeans used the term Antilia as one of the mysterious lands featured on medieval charts, sometimes as an archipelago, sometimes as continuous land of greater or lesser extent, its location fluctuating in mid-ocean between the Canary Islands and Eurasia.</p><br>
<p>The Lucayan Archipelago is not considered to be a part of the Antilles archipelagoes but rather of the North Atlantic.</p><br>
<h2>Countries</h2><br>
<p>Mona  is the third-largest island of the Puerto Rican archipelago, after the main island of Puerto Rico and Vieques. It is the largest of three islands in the Mona Passage, a strait between the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, the others being Monito Island and Desecheo Island. It measures about 7 miles by 4 miles , and lies 41 mi west of Puerto Rico, of which it is administratively a part. The original name given to the island by the Taíno Indians is Amona, which means "what is in the middle", referring to the journey between the islands of Puerto Rico and Hispaniola. It is one of two islands that make up the Isla de Mona e Islote Monito Barrio of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico.</p><br>
<p>The island is managed as the Reserva Natural Isla de Mona (links=no). There are no native inhabitants; only rangers and biologists from Puerto Rico&#39;s Department of Natural and Environmental Resources reside on the island, to manage visitors and take part in research projects.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-Columbian history</h3><br>
<p>Mona Island is believed to have been originally settled by Arawak Indians who arrived from Quisqueya (Hispaniola: present day Haiti and the Dominican Republic). An archeological excavation during the 1980s discovered many Pre-Columbian objects on the island that helped support historians theories of the islands first inhabitants. Stone tools found in a rock shelter have been dated to around 3000 BC. Much later the island was settled by the Taínos and remained so until the arrival of the Spanish in the 15th century.</p><br>
<h3>Colonial period</h3><br>
<p>On November 19, 1493, during his second voyage to the New World, Christopher Columbus encountered the island now known as Puerto Rico, which the natives called Borinquen (or Borikén according to some historians), and which Columbus named San Juan Bautista (Saint John the Baptist). Within hours of setting foot in Puerto Rico, Columbus and his ships headed west to Hispaniola, where he expected to meet several crewmembers who had remained behind from his first voyage. As he left Puerto Rico, he reputedly became the first European to sight the island on September 24, 1494, which was claimed for Spain. The name Mona derives from the Taíno name Ámona, bestowed by the natives in honor of the ruling Cacique or chief of the island. However, one amateur archaeologist (Rex Cauldwell) who has studied the Mona Island/Columbus sighting for over 14 years puts this in dispute with the following logic: "Mona island is to the southwest corner of PR. Columbus is in a bay on the northwest corner. He is to sail from there straight across to the north coast of Hispaniola. Why would he sail south to where he has already been and then sail north again to Hispaniola? This is illogical. Mona Island was probably picked by armchair historians because it is the only island in the passage between Puerto Rico and Hispaniola that is drawn on most maps. It is more logical that when Columbus left the northwest coast of Puerto Rico, the small island he saw had to be Desecheo—a famous diving destination not far off the northwest coast of PR. It was never considered by armchair authors because it is small, barren, and of no interest, it is not drawn on most maps." In 1502, Fray Nicolás de Ovando was sent to Isla de la Mona to keep an eye, from a safe distance, on the native revolts occurring in Hispaniola. With a group of 2,000 Spanish settlers, Ovando was left in charge of creating a permanent settlement on the island. Due to its small size and location, the island proved inadequate to accommodate such a large settlement, and food became scarce as shipments from Hispaniola and Puerto Rico were received infrequently.</p><br>
<p>Juan Ponce de León, who accompanied Columbus on his first two voyages, became the first ruling governor of Puerto Rico.</p><br>
<p>In 1515, after some wrangling, Ferdinand II was able to reclaim the island from Diego Colón, Viceroy of the Indies. By then, Isla de la Mona was an important point of trade between Spain and the rest of Latin America, as well as a rest stop for the crews of boats carrying slaves. With his possession of the island, King Ferdinand II gave the resident Taínos two options if they wished to continue living on the island: they could work by fishing, making hammocks and cultivating plants, or they could become miners and help in the mining of guano and other minerals. Realizing that mining would require intense labor, the majority of inhabitants chose to work as fishermen and farmers. By accepting this option, they also were exempted from paying imposed taxes, and were able to avoid the hard labor many other natives endured in mines. In time, natives from other neighboring islands were brought to Mona Island to assist with labor.</p><br>
<p>After the death of Ferdinand II in 1516, ownership of the island was transferred to Cardenal Cisneros. The island changed ownership again in 1520, when Francisco de Barrionuevo became the islands new landlord. By 1524, Alonso Manso, bishop of Puerto Rico, had become interested in gaining personal wealth, and he accused Barrionuevo, among others, of various crimes under the Spanish justice system of the time. Because of this situation, Barrionuevo exiled himself to one of Spains colonies in South America, taking many Taínos along with him, and leaving the island practically deserted.</p><br>
<p>By 1522, ships from other major sea powers such as England, France, and the Netherlands began to arrive at Isla de la Mona to replenish supplies for their transatlantic voyages. The island also provided them and pirates with a refuge from which they could attack and plunder Spanish galleons.</p><br>
<p>In 1561, during an audience held in Santo Domingo, it was recommended that Isla de la Mona should become a part of that colony (which at the time occupied the eastern half of Hispaniola). The reasons offered were simply that the island was closer to Santo Domingo (presently the Dominican Republic) than to Puerto Rico, and that it had a small population which could help the colony&#39;s economy in overall agricultural production. However, the petition was turned down and the island continued to remain politically part of Puerto Rico.</p><br>
<p>In 1583, the Spanish archbishop of Puerto Rico received royal permission to bring Christianity to Mona Island. However, by this time most Taínos remaining on the island had either died or fled to mainland Puerto Rico due to repeated raiding by European (especially French) ships. From the end of the 16th century up until the mid-19th century the island was largely abandoned by the colonial authorities. It seems to have been sporadically inhabited, although records from this period are somewhat sketchy. It continued to be used as a refuge by pirates and privateers, including the notorious Captain Kidd who hid out there in 1699.</p><br>
<p>The islands circumstances changed in the mid-19th century when it became the site of commercial guano mining operations. Various companies were granted licenses to extract the bat and seagull guano (a valuable fertilizer and key strategic commodity for the production of gunpowder) from the islands caves. Mining continued until 1927.</p><br>
<h4>Caves</h4><br>
<p>Around 200 caves are on the island with thousands of native art designs and the marks and names made by early Spanish explorers.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>With the 1898 Treaty of Paris, Isla de la Mona, along with the rest of Puerto Rico, was handed by Spain to the United States. Within two years of occupation, the Mona Island Light, left in an unfinished state since the beginning of the Spanish–American War, was completed and began operation. The lighthouse was, contrary to common opinion, not designed by famous French engineer Gustave Eiffel (who designed the Eiffel Tower in Paris), but the Spanish engineer Rafael Ravena in 1886. It remained in continuous operation until 1976 when it was replaced by a newer automated light.</p><br>
<p>On December 22, 1919 the island was declared an "Insular Forest of Puerto Rico", under the auspices of the USA Forest Law #22.</p><br>
<p>During Prohibition the island had a history of smuggling, with its geographic location making it a prime location for rum runners to smuggle rum, bourbon, and other liquor. In 1923, a stash of liquor, drugs, and perfumes, reportedly from the French islands of Martinique and Saint Martin and worth US$75,000, was found in a cave by customs officials.</p><br>
<p>In 1942, at the height of World War II, a German submarine bombarded the southern coast of the island. This was one of the few incidents of that war in the Caribbean. From 1945 to 1955 Mona Island was leased to the USA Air Force as a military exercise area.</p><br>
<p>Since 1941 the island has also been used for camping and hunting goats and wild boar. In 1960 a small ranger post was established to monitor the island, operated by the Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources.</p><br>
<p>In July 1972 the Environmental Quality Board of Puerto Rico, because of growing interest in the development of the islands, made a full scientific assessment of Mona and Monita using a local team of volunteer scientists. A two-volume report with maps of natural and historic features was produced. It evaluated the climate, geology and mineral resources, soils, water resources, archaeology, vegetation, animals and insects, and pelagic life around the island. Shortly thereafter geotechnical and bathymetry studies were conducted by engineering firms to determine the feasibility of using Mona as a deepwater terminal for transferring oil from supertankers to smaller tankers which would continue to the mainland US; this plan was never implemented.</p><br>
<p>In 1981, the Mona Island Lighthouse was listed on the USA National Register of Historic Places as "Faro de la Isla de la Mona".</p><br>
<p>On February 15, 1985, the passenger-cargo ferry ran aground on a reef on the southeastern side of Mona Island. While there were no deaths nor serious injuries, 143 passengers and 72 crew members landed on Mona Island to await rescue. The wreck of the ship was removed from the reef in 1990.</p><br>
<p>In 1993, the island (perhaps all of it), as "Isla de la Mona", was listed on the National Register.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Mona has an area of about 22 square miles and lies 41 mi west of the main island of Puerto Rico, 38 mi east of the Dominican Republic, and 30 mi southwest of Desecheo Island, another island in the Mona Passage.</p><br>
<p>Mona has been designated an ecological reserve by the Puerto Rican government and is not permanently inhabited. The US census of 2000 reports six housing units, but a population of zero. The island is a ward (barrio) of the municipality of Mayagüez, together with Monito Island 3.1 mi (5 km) northwest (Isla de Mona e Islote Monito barrio). This is the largest ward of Mayagüez by area, and the only one without permanent population. The total land area of both islands in the barrio is about 21.98 square miles (56.93 km²) (Mona Island 21.924 square miles and nearby Monito Island 0.057 square miles ), and it comprises 28.3 percent of the total land area of the municipality of Mayagüez. Desecheo Island, 30 mi (49 km) to the northeast, is part of Sabanetas barrio.</p><br>
<p>Mona is a mainly flat plateau surrounded by sea cliffs. It is composed of dolomite and limestone with many caves found throughout. With an arid climate and untouched by human development, many endemic species inhabit the island, such as the Mona ground iguana (Cyclura cornuta stejnegeri). Its topography, ecology, and modern history are similar to that of Navassa Island, a small limestone island located in the Jamaica Channel, between Jamaica and Haiti.</p><br>
<h3>Land cover</h3><br>
<p>Four types of land cover can be identified:</p><br>
<p>Cactus (4.35 square miles) (11.27 km²)</p><br>
<p>Highland Forest (15.55 square miles) (40.28 km²)</p><br>
<p>Central Depression Forest (0.57 square miles) (1.47 km²)</p><br>
<p>Coastal Forest (1.46 square miles) (3.77 km²)</p><br>
<h3>Beaches</h3><br>
<p>Mona Island hosts a large and increasing hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) rookery with over 1,500 clutches laid annually on its beaches. The island is recognized as one of the principal sites for hawksbill nesting in the Wider Caribbean and Western Atlantic region, along with Mexico (Yucatán peninsula beaches), Barbados, Panama (Bocas del Toro), and Brazil.</p><br>
<p>The only campsites are at Playa de Pájaros and Playa Sardinera. In addition, Playa Uveros, Pájaros, Playa Mujeres and Playa Brava are important to visitors.</p><br>
<h2>Mona Island today</h2><br>
<p>The island presently serves as a retreat for Puerto Ricans and nature enthusiasts from all around the world, and has also become a popular destination for Puerto Rican Boy and Girl Scouts. Due to the islands unique topography, ecology and location, Mona, Desecheo and Monito have been nicknamed "The Galápagos Islands of the Caribbean". Scientists, ecologists, and students have visited Mona Island to explore its distinct ecosystem, which includes the endemic Mona Ground Iguana. The island is also home to many cave drawings that were left behind by the islands original inhabitants. Remains of the guano mining industry can also be seen.</p><br>
<p>An FAA-certified airport that can handle small aircraft was built by the Puerto Rican government. This airport has no ICAO or IATA code. The United States Coast Guard is able to provide transportation with helicopter flights from Rafael Hernández Airport in Aguadilla, to help with medicines and first aid equipment; they also fly whenever an emergency requiring hospitalization occurs. Private and commercial planes require a special permit issued by the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources to use the airport&#39;s facilities.</p><br>
<p>The most common form of transportation is by private yacht, though commercial excursions are available from Cabo Rojo for small groups of up to twelve people traveling together.</p><br>
<p>Hunting is permitted in season in order to control the population growth of non-indigenous species (goats, pigs and wild cats) because they can represent a threat to various endangered species. The hunting season usually commences in December and ends in April. Camping is allowed from May through November.</p><br>
<p>In recent years, the island has become a major drop-off point especially for Dominicans, as well as Haitians and Cubans trying to reach Puerto Rico illegally. As a USA Commonwealth, Puerto Rico is seen by many illegal migrants as a stepping stone to the United States. On the other hand, they are usually deported immediately.</p><br>
<p>The Witwatersrand , is a 56-kilometre-long, north-facing scarp in South Africa. It consists of a hard, erosion-resistant quartzite metamorphic rock, over which several north-flowing rivers form waterfalls, which account for the name Witwatersrand, meaning "ridge of white waters" in Afrikaans. This east-west-running scarp can be traced with only one short gap from Bedfordview  in the east, through Johannesburg and Roodepoort, to Krugersdorp in the west .</p><br>
<p>The scarp forms the northern edge of a 7- to 10-kilometre-wide plateau (or ridge) which rises about 200 m above the surrounding plains of the Highveld. The entire plateau-like structure is also often called the Witwatersrand. The plateau’s elevation above sea-level is between 1700 and 1800 m.</p><br>
<p>The Witwatersrand plateau forms a continental divide, with the run-off to the north draining into the Indian Ocean via the Crocodile and Limpopo rivers, while the run-off to the south drains via the Vaal into the Orange River and ultimately into the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<p>Because of the extraordinary quantities of gold that have been extracted from the Witwatersrand rocks, the South African currency was named the Rand in 1961.</p><br>
<h2>Geology of the Witwatersrand ridge</h2><br>
<p>Gold is found in the conglomerate strata of the younger members of the Supergroup, locally referred to as banket. The abundance of this gold is without equal anywhere else in the world. Over 50 000 tons have been mined from these rocks since this precious metal was first discovered here in 1886. This accounts for approximately 50% of all the gold ever mined on earth.</p><br>
<p>Not all the conglomerates contain gold, and of those that do (known as “reefs” by the miners), the gold is not uniformly distributed throughout the layer, but tends to occur in streaks, where the pebbles that make up the conglomerate are larger than elsewhere. Here the gold is associated with other minerals, especially iron pyrite and uraninite, as well as carbon rich materials such as kerogen, or bitumen, which occurs in small balls less than 1 mm in size, called “flyspeck carbon”, or as continuous layers about 10&ndash;20 mm thick. The gold-bearing conglomerates occur chiefly in the upper, younger layers of the Witwatersrand Supergroup of rocks, on the southern side of the Witwatersrand plateau.</p><br>
<p>The Witwatersrand Supergroup strata which reach the surface in Johannesburg dip downwards to the south at an angle of about 30°. Gold mining in these buried portions of the Witwatersrand Supergroup is sometimes carried out at depths of 4 km below the surface.</p><br>
<h3>Geological origin</h3><br>
<p>As the sea deepened finer grained and muddy sediments accumulated.</p><br>
<p>There was no free oxygen in earth’s atmosphere till about 2000 million years ago, but there were photosynthesizing cyanobacteria. The oxygen these microorganisms produced rapidly reacted with, amongst others, any dissolved iron compounds in the water, producing insoluble red iron oxide (rust), which precipitated out during the daylight hours. At night these reactions stopped. The result was alternating red and gray layers of mud which, when consolidated, became banded ironstones.</p><br>
<p>Fluctuating sea levels resulted in the accumulation of a further variety of sediments, ranging from mud, to sand, to gravel, and banded ironstone. Tillite deposits, dating from 2950 million years ago, are indicative of the first glaciation episodes on earth. Within 60 million years, 4300 m of sediment had accumulated on the granite base, to become the “West Rand Group” of rocks that contribute over 60% of the total thickness of the Witwatersrand Supergroup.</p><br>
<p>Uplifting of the north of the Kaapvaal Craton, in addition to orogenesis (mountain formation), towards the end of the deposition of the “West Rand Group” of sediments caused the Witwatersrand sea to retreat. The area of the craton on top of which Johannesburg is now situated, became a vast riverine plain, which extended along the entire northern and western shoreline of the shrunken sea. The rivers formed braided deltas with many interlacing, slow flowing channels where all the heavy materials brought down from the mountains were deposited: large pebbles, and heavy minerals, such as gold, iron pyrite, and uraninite. The gold was in its elemental metal form. Cyanobacteria grew in relative abundance in these mineral rich waters. The kerogen that is found in association with the gold deposits almost certainly represents what remains of these Archean photosynthesizing micro-organisms.</p><br>
<p>It is clear that for the next 200 million years the flood plain was repeatedly inundated, sometimes eroded, and sediments re-deposited. The result was a 2500 m thick layer of rock that is termed the “Central Rand Group”, which together with the “West Rand Group”, forms the “Witwatersrand Supergroup”. It is the younger Group of rocks that contains the gold bearing conglomerates that are today of great economic importance. The largely underground horizontal extent of the Witwatersrand Supergroup is known as the Witwatersrand Basin.</p><br>
<p>The ultimate source of the gold is unknown. But that it is restricted to the areas of the craton’s coastal plain where the rivers flowing into the Witwatersrand sea formed braided deltas, indicates that the source was in the mountains to the north. The Welkom, Klerksdorp, Carletonville, West Rand, East Rand and Evander gold mines are all situated over these Archean fan deltas.</p><br>
<p>The “Central Rand Group” of deposits was brought to an abrupt end by massive outpourings of lava, which form the Ventersdorp lavas which erupted 2714 million years ago. The cause of these lava outpourings is a matter of speculation. It might be related to the collision of the Kaapvaal craton with the Zimbabwe craton, eventually to become knitted together to form a single continental unit.</p><br>
<h2>Consequences of mining the ancient Witwatersrand rocks</h2><br>
<p>Apart from the obvious hollowing out of the rocks below southern Johannesburg, causing unpredictable sinkholes, surface instabilities and earth tremors, the bringing to the surface of rocks that had been laid down in oxygen-free conditions had unforeseen effects. Iron pyrite (FeS2), which is relatively plentiful in the gold ores of the Witwatersrand, oxidises to insoluble ferric oxide (Fe2O3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Thus, when mine waste comes into contact with oxygenated rainwater, sulfuric acid is released into the ground water. Acid mine drainage, as the phenomenon is called, has become a major ecological problem, because it dissolves many of the heavy elements, such as the uranium, cadmium, lead, zinc, copper, arsenic and mercury found in the mine dumps, facilitating their passage into surface water and ground water. Sulfuric acid also erodes concrete and cement structures, resulting in structural damage to buildings and bridges.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Harrison declared his claim with the then-government of the Zuid Afrikaanse Republiek (ZAR), and in September 1886 President Paul Kruger issued a proclamation declaring nine farms public mining diggings, starting on 20 September 1886. This heralded the historic Witwatersrand Gold Rush. Harrison is believed to have sold his claim for less than £10 before leaving the area, and he was never heard from again.</p><br>
<p>Harrison’s original “Zoekers” (in English: seeker’s, or prospector’s) Claim No 19 was declared a national monument in 1944, and named Harrison’s Park. The park is on the busy Main Reef Road, immediately west of Nasrec Road.</p><br>
<p>In 1887 Cecil John Rhodes registered “The Gold Fields of South Africa” in London, South Africa’s first mining house, with a capital of £250 000. His brother Thomas was the first chairman.</p><br>
<p>The Strait of Magellan , also called the Straits of Magellan, is a navigable sea route separating mainland South America to the north and Tierra del Fuego to the south. The strait is the most important natural passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.</p><br>
<p>It is considered a difficult route to navigate due to the narrowness of the passage and unpredictable winds and currents. It is shorter and more sheltered than the often stormy Drake Passage. Along with the narrow and sometimes treacherous Beagle Channel, these were the only three sea routes between these two oceans until the construction of the Panama Canal.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-Columbian cultures</h3><br>
<h3>Discovery by Europeans</h3><br>
<h4>Accounts before Magellan</h4><br>
<p>It was reported by António Galvão in 1563 that the position of the Strait of Magellan was previously mentioned in old charts as Dragon&#39;s Tail (Draco Cola):</p><br>
<h4>Magellan</h4><br>
<p>Ferdinand Magellan (Fernão de Magalhães), a Portuguese explorer and navigator in the service of Charles I of Spain, became the first European to navigate the strait in 1520 during his global circumnavigation voyage.</p><br>
<p>On March 22, 1518, the expedition was organized in Valladolid, naming Magellan captain general of the fleet and governor of all the lands discovered, and establishing the privileges of Magellan and his business associate Rui Faleiro. The fleet would become known as the "Armada de las Molucas" or "Fleet of the Moluccas". The expeditionary fleet of five ships set sail from Sanlúcar de Barrameda on September 20, 1519.</p><br>
<p>The five ships included La Trinidad (110 tons, crew 55), under the command of Magellan; La San Antonio (120 tons, crew 60) under the command of Juan de Cartagena; La Concepción (90 tons, crew 45) under the command of Gaspar de Quezada (Juan Sebastián Elcano served as boatswain); La Victoria (85 tons, crew 42) under the command of Luis de Mendoza; and La Santiago (75 tons, crew 32), under command of Juan Rodríguez Serrano (João Rodrigues Serrão). Before the passage of the Strait (and after the mutiny in Puerto San Julián), Álvaro de Mesquita became captain of the San Antonio, and Duarte Barbosa of Victoria. Later, Serrão became captain of Concepcion (his Santiago, sent on a mission to find the passage, was caught in a storm and wrecked). San Antonio, charged to explore Magdalen Sound, failed to return to the fleet, instead sailing back to Spain under Estêvão Gomes who imprisoned the captain Mesquita.</p><br>
<p>Magellans ships entered the strait on November 1, 1520, All Saints Day, and it was initially called Estrecho de Todos los Santos (Strait of All Saints). Magellan&#39;s chronicler, Antonio Pigafetta, called it the Patagonian Strait, and others Victoria Strait, commemorating the first ship entering it. Within seven years it was being called Estrecho de Magallanes in honor of Magellan. The Spanish Empire and the Captaincy General of Chile used it as the southern boundary of their territory.</p><br>
<h4>Other explorers</h4><br>
<p>The first Spanish colony was established in 1584 by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, who founded Nombre de Jesús and Rey Don Felipe on the northern shore of the strait. These towns suffered severe food shortages, and when the English navigator Sir Thomas Cavendish landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement. He renamed the place Port Famine.</p><br>
<p>Other early explorers included Francis Drake (1578). In February 1696 the first French expedition, under the command of M. de Gennes reached the Strait of Magellan. The expedition is described by the young French explorer, engineer and hydrographer François Froger in his A Relation of a Voyage (1699).</p><br>
<p>The strait was first carefully explored and thoroughly charted by Phillip Parker King, who commanded the British survey vessel HMS Adventure, and in consort with HMS Beagle spent five years surveying the complex coasts around the strait (1826 - 1830). A report on the survey was presented at two meetings of the Geographical Society of London in 1831.. –: Some Observations relating to the Southern Extremity of South America, Tierra del Fuego, and the Strait of Magalhaens; made during the Survey of those Coasts in his Majesty&#39;s ships Adventure and Beagle, between the years 1826 and 1830. By Captain Phillip Parker King, F.R.S., Commander of the Expedition; "read before the Geographical Society of London on the 25th of April and 9th of May 1831; and... printed in the Journal of that Society for the same year."</p><br>
<h3>Incorporation into Chile</h3><br>
<p>Chile took possession of the Strait of Magellan on May 23, 1843. President Bulnes of Chile ordered this expedition after consulting the Chilean libertador Bernardo O&#39;Higgins (1778-1842), who feared an occupation by Great Britain or France. The first Chilean settlement was Fuerte Bulnes, situated in a forested zone on the north side of the strait. Fuerte Bulnes was later abandoned, and in 1848 the city of Punta Arenas was founded farther north where the Magellanic forests meets the Patagonian plains. In Tierra del Fuego, across the strait from Punta Arenas, the village of Porvenir emerged during the Tierra del Fuego gold rush in the late 19th century.</p><br>
<p>Argentina effectively recognized Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan in the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina. Argentina had previously claimed all of the strait, or at least the eastern third of it.</p><br>
<p>In 1840 the Pacific Steam Navigation Company was the first to use steamships for commercial traffic in the strait.</p><br>
<p>Until the Panama Canal opened in 1914, the Strait of Magellan was the main route for steamships traveling from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. It was often considered the only safe way to move between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as the Drake Passage separating Cape Horn (the southern tip of South America) from Antarctica is notorious for turbulent and unpredictable weather, and is frequented by icebergs and sea ice. Ships in the strait, protected by Tierra del Fuego to the south and the coast of continental South America to the north crossed with relative ease, and Punta Arenas became a primary refueling port providing coal for steam ships in transit. Sailing ships, however, partly because of variable winds and currents in the strait, generally preferred the Drake Passage, as they had more room to maneuver there.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>The strait is approximately 570 km long and about 2 km wide at its narrowest point (Carlos III Island, west of Cape Froward). The northwestern portion of the strait is connected with other sheltered waterways via the Smyth Channel. This area is similar to the Inside Passage of Alaska. South of Cape Froward, the principal shipping route follows the Magdalena Channel.</p><br>
<p>The eastern opening is a wide bay on the border of Chile and Argentina between Punta Dúngeness on the mainland and Cabo del Espíritu Santo (Cape of the Holy Spirit) on Tierra del Fuego, the border as defined in the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and Argentina. Immediately west are Primera Angostura and Segunda Angostura, narrows formed by two terminal moraines of different ages. The Primera Angostura is the closest approach of Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego to the mainland of South America. Farther west lies Magdalena Island, part of Los Pingüinos Natural Monument. The strait&#39;s southern boundary in the east follows first the shoreline of the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, then the northern end of the Canal Whiteside and the shoreline of Dawson Island.</p><br>
<p>The western part of the strait leads northwest from the northern end of the Magdalena Channel to the strait&#39;s Pacific entrance. This portion of the strait is flanked on the south by Capitán Aracena Island, Clarence Island, Santa Inés Island, Desolación Island (Cabo Pilar) and other smaller islands, and on the north by Brunswick Peninsula, Riesco Island, Muñoz Gamero Peninsula, Manuel Rodriguez Island and other minor islands of the Queen Adelaide Archipelago. Two narrow channels connect the strait with Seno Otway and Seno Skyring. A broader channel, Smyth Channel, leads north from the strait between Muñoz Gamero Peninsula and Manuel Rodriguez Island. Francisco Coloane Coastal and Marine Protected Area, a sanctuary for humpback whales, is located in this area. This part of the strait lies on the elongated Magallanes-Fagnano Fault, which marks a plate boundary between the South American Plate and the Scotia Plate. This fault continues southward under Almirantazgo Fjord and then below Fagnano Lake. Possibly, new tourism industries could be established in the eastern part of the strait for watching southern right whales, as the number of observations in the area has increased in recent years.</p><br>
<h2>Toponym of the zone</h2><br>
<p>The place names of the zone come from a variety of origins, many from Spanish and English, and from at least one native language, that is adaptations of the Ona language to the Spanish language phonology and spelling like Timaukel (hamlet at the east side of Tierra del Fuego), Carukinka (the end of the Almirantazgo Fjord), Anika (a channel located at 54° 7 S and 70° 30 W) and Arska (the north side of the Dawson Island).</p><br>
<p>Magellan named initially the strait Todos los Santos as he began the voyage through the west on 1 November 1520. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor renamed it as Estrecho de Magallanes. Magellan named the island on the south side as Tierra del Fuego, which the Yaghan people called Onaisín in the Yaghan language. Magellan also gave the name Patagones (Big Feet) to the mainland Indians, their land was subsequently known as Patagonia.</p><br>
<p>Bahía Cordes is named after the Dutch pirate Baltazar de Cordes</p><br>
<h2>Lighthouses in the Strait</h2><br>
<p>The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency lists 41 lighthouses in the waterway. Some of them are more than a century old, and some are declared Monumento Nacional. Among the most impressive lighthouses are the County of Peebles hulk, the world&#39;s first four-masted, iron-hulled "full-rig ship", used now as a breakwater for the harbour at Punta Arenas, the San Isidro lighthouse, restored in 2004 and which is now a museum and lodge, and the Evangelistas Lighthouse, located at the western mouth of the Strait and built by George Slight, who wrote on his arrival in 1934:</p><br>
<h2>Tidal characteristics of the Strait of Magellan</h2><br>
<p>On the Atlantic side, the Strait is characterized by semidiurnal macrotides with mean and spring tide ranges of 7.1 and 9.0 m, respectively. On the Pacific side, tides are mixed, mainly semidiurnal, with mean and spring tide ranges of 1.1 and 1.2 m, respectively.</p><br>
<p>There is enormous tidal energy potential in the Strait.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>Around the strait are located (S.P.=Sistema Protegido, protected system) the S.P. Cabo Posesión, S.P. Cabo Espíritu Santo, S.P. San Gregorio, S.P. Estepa Húmeda Kampenaiken Tres Chorrillos, S.P. San Juan, S.P. Reservas Biológicas de Río Cóndor, S.P. Timaukel, S.P. Isla Dawson, S.P. Cabo Froward, S.P. Península Muñoz Gamero, and the B.N.P. (Bienes Nacionales Protegidos) Isla Carlos III, and B.N.P. Islote Rupert.</p><br>
<h2>Traffic</h2><br>
<p>As the strait provides a well protected inland water way for safe navigation, sheltered from rough weather and high seas, ships sail through the strait</p><br>
<p>from Pacific to Atlantic and back,</p><br>
<p>from the oceans to the Beagle Channel through the route Magdalena, Cockburn Channel, Paso Brecknock or Canal Ocasión, Ballenero Channel, O&#39;Brien Channel, Paso Timbales, northwest arm of the Beagle Channel and the Beagle Channel and back, and also</p><br>
<p>to cross the strait from north to south and back. This is the case of all traffic between the Chilean and Argentine mainland and the cities in Tierra del Fuego: Porvenir, Cerro Sombrero, Timaukel, Ushuaia and Río Grande</p><br>
<p>571 Chilean ships and 1,681 non-Chilean ships sailed through the strait in 2008. Piloting is compulsory for sailing the strait.</p><br>
<h2>Navigation status</h2><br>
<p>Article 35 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea states that "Nothing in this Part affects:... (c) the legal regime in straits in which passage is regulated in whole or in part by long-standing international conventions in force specifically relating to such straits". Article V of the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina established a legal regime for the Strait of Magellan, and in a diplomatic letter to major shipping nations in 1873 Chile promised freedom of navigation through and neutrality within the strait.</p><br>
<p>Chiloé Island , also known as Greater Island of Chiloé , is the largest island of the Chiloé Archipelago off the coast of Chile, in the Pacific Ocean. The island is located in southern Chile, in the Los Lagos Region.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>With an area of 8,394 km&sup2, Chiloé Island is the second largest island in Chile, after the Tierra del Fuego, and the fifth largest in South America. It is separated from the Chilean mainland by the Chacao Strait (Canal Chacao) to the north, and by the Gulf of Ancud (Golfo de Ancud) and the Gulf of Corcovado (Golfo Corcovado) to the east; the Pacific Ocean lies to the west, and the Chonos Archipelago lies to the south, across the Boca del Guafo. The island is 190 km from north to south, and averages 55 - wide. The capital is Castro, on the east side of the island; the second largest town is Ancud, at the island&#39;s northwest corner, and there are several smaller port towns on the east side of the island, such as Quellón, Dalcahue and Chonchi.</p><br>
<p>Chiloé Island and the Chonos Archipelago are a southern extension of the Chilean coastal range at Chilean Patagonia, which runs north and south, parallel to the Pacific coast and the Andes Mountains. The Chilean Central Valley lies between the coastal mountains and the Andes, of which the Gulfs of Ancud and Corcovado form the southern extension. Mountains run north and south along the spine of the island. The east coast is deeply indented, with several natural harbors and numerous smaller islands.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Chiloé runs from 41º47′S to 43º26′S, and has a humid, cool temperate climate. The western side of the island is rainy and wild, home to the Valdivian temperate rain forests, one of the worlds few temperate rain forests. Chiloé National Park (Parque Nacional de Chiloé) is located on the islands western shore and Tantauco Park (Parque Tantauco) a private natural reserve created and owned by Chilean business magnate and former President of Chile Sebastián Piñera, is located on the island&#39;s southern shore and both include parts of the coastal range. The eastern shore, in the rain shadow of the interior mountains, is warmer and drier.</p><br>
<h2>Alfaguara project</h2><br>
<p>The northwestern of Chiloé Island in Chiloé National Park has a great diversity of marine fauna, including blue whale, sei whale, Chilean dolphins and Peale&#39;s dolphins; sea lions, marine otters, and Magellanic penguin and Humboldt penguins.</p><br>
<p>Nevertheless, this relatively undisturbed area faces different threats, like urban development, habitat degradation, land and marine pollution.</p><br>
<p>The Alfaguara project (blue whale project), conducted by the Cetacean Conservation Center, is based at Puñihuil on the northwest coast.</p><br>
<p>The project combines long term research, educational and capacity building programs for marine conservation combined with the sustainable development of the local communities.</p><br>
<p>The Islotes de Puñihuil Natural Monument is a group of three islets to the west and north of Puñihuil.</p><br>
<p>The monument is the only known shared breeding site for Humboldt and Magellanic penguins.</p><br>
<p>It is also a breeding area for other species, such as the red-legged cormorant and kelp gull.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Chiloé has been described by Renato Cárdenas, historian at the Chilean National Library, as “a distinct enclave, linked more to the sea than the continent, a fragile society with a strong sense of solidarity and a deep territorial attachment.”</p><br>
<p>Chiloé’s history began with the arrival of its first human inhabitants more than 7,000 years ago. Spread along the coast of Chiloé are a number of middens - ancient dumps for domestic waste, containing mollusc shells, stone tools and bonfire remains. All of these remains indicate the presence of nomadic groups dedicated to the collection of marine creatures (clams, mussels and choromytilus chorus, among others) and to hunting and fishing.</p><br>
<p>When the Spanish conquistadores arrived on Chiloé Island in the 16th Century, the island was inhabited by the Chono, Huilliche and Cunco peoples. The original peoples navigated the treacherous waters of the Chiloé Archipelago in boats called dalcas with skill that impressed the Spaniards.</p><br>
<p>The first Spaniard to sight the coast of Chiloé was the explorer Alonso de Camargo in 1540, as he was travelling to Peru. However, in an expedition ordered by Pedro de Valdivia, captain Francisco de Ulloa reached the Chacao Channel in 1553 and explored the islands forming the archipelago, and is thus considered the first discoverer of Chiloé. In 1558, Spanish soldier García Hurtado de Mendoza began an expedition which would culminate in the Chiloé archipelago being claimed for the Spanish crown.</p><br>
<p>The city of Castro was founded in 1567.</p><br>
<p>The island was originally called New Galicia by the Spanish discoverers, but this name did not stick and the name Chiloé, meaning “place of seagulls” in the Huilliche language, was given to the island.</p><br>
<p>Jesuit missionaries to Chiloé Island, charged with the evangelization of the local population arrived on Chiloé at the turn of the 17th Century and built a number of chapels throughout the archipelago. By 1767 there were already 79 and today more than 150 wooden churches built in traditional style can be found on the islands, many of these declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. Following the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767, the Franciscans assumed responsibility for the religious mission to Chiloé from 1771.</p><br>
<p>Chiloé only became part of the Chilean republic in 1826, eight years after independence and following the two failed campaigns for independence in 1820 and 1824. From 1843, a large number of Chilotes (as inhabitants of the island are called) migrated to Patagonia in search of work, mainly in Punta Arenas, but as living and working conditions in Chiloé improved in the following century this migration began gradually to decrease.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century, Chiloé was a center for foreign whalers, particularly French whalers. From the middle of the 19th century and until the beginning of the 20th century, Chiloé was the main producer of railroad ties for the whole continent. From this point on, new towns dedicated to this industry were formed, including Quellón, Dalcahue, Chonchi and Quemchi were established. From 1895, lands were given to European settlers and also to large manufacturing industries.</p><br>
<p>With the rise of farming, inland areas of Chiloé Island began to be occupied; previously only the coastline had been inhabited. With the construction of the railroad between Ancud and Castro in 1912, the occupation of inland zones was completed. This railroad is no longer in service.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>In late 2012, LAN Airlines became the first airline to offer flights to Chiloé Island, inaugurating a regular service between Puerto Montt and the airport of Mocopulli, Dalcahue. Previously the only means of access to Chiloé island was via a ferry service across the Chacao Channel.</p><br>
<p>A project to build a bridge from Chiloé Island to the mainland of Chile was initially proposed in 1972 and was eventually launched under the government of Ricardo Lagos (2000-2006) who launched the project as part of works to celebrate the Bicentennial of Chile. In 2006, however, the Chacao Channel bridge project was cancelled by the Ministry of Public Works after concerns about its total cost, which was estimated to be higher than the initial budget for the project. In May 2012, President Sebastián Piñera again revived the project, announcing an international bidding process would be opened to present the best solution for the construction of the bridge, with a US$740 million investment limit.</p><br>
<p>Mamre , full Hebrew name Elonei Mamre , refers to an ancient cultic shrine originally focused on a single holy tree, belonging to Canaan, Talmudic sources refer to the site as Beth Ilanim or Botnah, where it was one of the three most important "fairs", or market places, in Judea. Mamre lies approximately halfway between Halhul and historical Hebron, 4 kilometres north of the latter.</p><br>
<h2>Hebrew Bible</h2><br>
<h3>Names and events</h3><br>
<p>Genesis 13:18 has Abraham settling by the great trees of Mamre. The original Hebrew tradition appears, to judge from a textual variation conserved in the Septuagint, to have referred to a single great oak tree, which Josephus called Ogyges. Mamre has frequently been associated with the Cave of the Patriarchs. According to one scholar, there is considerable confusion in the Biblical narrative concerning not only Mamre, but also Machpelah, Hebron and Kiryat Arba, all four of which are aligned repeatedly. In Genesis, Mamre is also identified with Hebron itself. The tradition of identifying the unwalled ruins of what Arabic tradition records called Rāmet el-Ḥalīl (Hill of the Friend), with the Old Testament Mamre goes back to the earliest Christian pilgrims in the 4th century CE.</p><br>
<p>Elsewhere it is called the Terebinths of Mamre the Amorite. Mamre being the name of one of the three Amorite chiefs who joined forces with those of Abraham in pursuit of Chedorlaomer to save Lot (Gen. 14:13,24).</p><br>
<p>The supposed discrepancy is often explained as reflecting the discordance between the different scribal traditions behind the composition of the Pentateuch, the former relating to the Yahwist, the latter to the Elohist recension, according to the documentary hypothesis of modern scholarship.</p><br>
<h3>Identification</h3><br>
<p>The exact site of Mamre, mention of which is made only in Book of Genesis, is not clear.</p><br>
<p>Ramat el-Khalil, in one interpretation of the biblical account, was the Mamre site where Abraham pitched the tents for his camp, built an altar, and was brought divine tidings, in the guise of three angels, of Sarah&#39;s pregnancy,</p><br>
<p>Khirbet es-Sibte (also Ain Sebta), the present-day site of the Oak of Mamre, two kilometres southwest of Ramat el-Khalil, has been considered since the 19th century as the place where Abraham pitched his tents and saw the angels.</p><br>
<h2>History and archaeology</h2><br>
<h3>Bronze Age</h3><br>
<p>Bronze age pottery shards found at the Ramat el-Khalil site may indicate that the cultic shrine was in use from 2600-2000 BCE, though there is no archaeological evidence for the site being occupied from the first half of the second millennium down to the end of the Iron Age.</p><br>
<h3>Josephus: the terebinth</h3><br>
<p>Josephus (37–c. 100) records a tradition according to which the terebinth at Mamre was as old as the world itself (War 4.534). The site was soaked in legend. Jews, Christians and Pagans made sacrifices on the site, burning animals, and the tree was considered immune to the flames of the sacrifices. Constantine the Great (r. 302–337) was still attempting, without success, to stop this tradition.</p><br>
<h3>Herod: the enclosure</h3><br>
<p>The 2 m thick stone wall enclosing area 60 m wide and 83 m long was constructed by Herod the Great, possibly as a cultic place of worship. It contained an ancient well, more than 5 m in diameter, referred to as Abraham&#39;s Well.</p><br>
<h3>Late Roman period: Hadrian's temple</h3><br>
<p>The Herodian structure was destroyed by Simon bar Kokhbas army, only to be rebuilt by the Roman emperor Hadrian. Hadrian revived the fair, which had long been an important one as it took place at an intersection forming the transport and communications nub of the southern Judean mountains. This mercatus (Heb. yerid or shuq: πανήγυρις) or "fair, market" was one of the sites, according to a Jewish tradition conserved in Jerome, chosen by Hadrian to sell remnants of Bar Kochbas defeated army into slavery.</p><br>
<h3>Rabbinical tradition</h3><br>
<p>Due to the idolatrous nature of the rituals at the fair, Jews were forbidden to participate by their rabbis. According to the Jerusalem Talmud:</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine Christian rule</h3><br>
<p>Notwithstanding the rabbinic ban, by the time of Constantine the Greats reign (302–337), the market had become an informal interdenominational festival, in addition to its functions as a trade fair, frequented by Christians, Jews and pagans. The cultic shrine was made over for Christian use after Eutropia, Constantines mother-in-law, visited it and was scandalised by its pagan character. Constantine, informed of these pagan practices, attempted without success to put an end to the festive rituals celebrated about the tree. He ordered the comes Acacius to destroy all pagan idols and banned the pagan practices. The enclosure was then consecrated, Constantine had a basilica built, dedicated to Saint George and the enclosure of the Terebinth of Mamre roofed over, the foundations of which are still visible.</p><br>
<p>The 1957 plan and reconstruction of the site made after the excavation performed by German scholar A. E. Mader in 1926-1928, shows the Constantinian basilica along the eastern wall of the Haram Ramet el-Khalil enclosure, with a well, altar, and tree in the unroofed western part of the enclosure.</p><br>
<p>The venerated tree was destroyed by Christian visitors taking souvenirs, leaving only a stump which survived down to the seventh century.</p><br>
<p>The fifth-century account by Sozomen (Historia Ecclesiastica Book II 4-54) is the most detailed account of the practices at Mamre during the early Christian period.</p><br>
<p>Antoninus of Piacenza in his Itinerarium, an account of his journey to the Holy Land (ca.570 CE) comments on the basilica, with its four porticoes, and an unroofed atrium. Both Christians and Jews worshipped there, separated by a small screen (cancellus). The Jewish worshippers would flock there to celebrate the deposition of Jacob and David on the day after the traditional date of Christ&#39;s birthday.</p><br>
<p>Arculf, a Frankish bishop who toured the Levant in around 680, writes, indicating a slightly erroneous location in relation to the Tombs of the Patriarchs:</p><br>
<p>A mile to the north of the Tombs that have been described above, is the very grassy and flowery hill of Mambre, looking towards Hebron, which lies to the south of it. This little mountain, which is called Mambre, has a level summit, at the north side of which a great stone church has been built, in the right side of which between the two walls of this great Basilica, the Oak of Mambre, wonderful to relate, stands rooted in the earth; it is also called the oak of Abraham, because under it he once hospitably received the Angels. St. Hieronymus elsewhere relates, that this tree had existed from the beginning of the world to the reign of the Emperor Constantine; but he did not say that it had utterly perished, perhaps because at that time, although the whole of that vast tree was not to be seen as it had been formerly, yet a spurious trunk still remained rooted in the ground, protected under the roof of the church, of the height of two men; from this wasted spurious trunk, which has been cut on all sides by axes, small chips are carried to the different provinces of the world, on account of the veneration and memory of that oak, under which, as has been mentioned above, that famous and notable visit of the Angels was granted to the patriarch Abraham.</p><br>
<p>A vignette of the Constantinian basilica with its colonnaded atrium appears on the 6th-century Madaba Map, under the partially preserved Greek caption "Arbo, also the Terebinth. The Oak of Mambre".</p><br>
<h3>Early Muslim period</h3><br>
<p>The monastery on the site continued after Umar&#39;s conquest.</p><br>
<h3>Crusader period</h3><br>
<p>During the Crusades, the site may have been used by a Church of the Trinity.</p><br>
<h3>After mid-12th century: new locations</h3><br>
<p>The last clear identification and description of the Byzantine church remains at Ramat el-Khalil come from the Russian pilgrim known as Abbot Daniel (1106/8). which used to be outside historical Hebron but is now within the urban sprawl of the Palestinian city.</p><br>
<p>As written in a footnote from a 1895 publication of Arculfs pilgrimage report, "he Oak or Terebinth of Abraham has been shown in two different sites. Arculf and many others (Jerome, Itin Hierosol, Sozomen, Eucherius, Benjamin of Tudela, the Abbot Daniel.... etc.) seem to point to the ruin of er Râmeh, near which is Beit el Khulil, or Abrahams House, with a fine spring well. This is still held by the Jews to be the Oak of Mamre. The Christians point to another site, Ballûtet Sebta, where is a fine specimen of Sindian (Quercus Pseudococcifera)." Ballut is the Arabic word for oak.</p><br>
<h2>Footnotes</h2><br>
<h2>Bibliography</h2><br>
<p>Adamnanus, De Locis Sanctis</p><br>
<p>Alter, Robert (tr.) Genesis, W.W.Norton & Co. New York, London 1996</p><br>
<p>Eusebius Life of Constantine, Translated by Averil Cameron, Stuart George Hall Oxford University Press, (1999)</p><br>
<p>Fergusson, James (2004) Tree and Serpent Worship Or Illustrations of Mythology and Arts in India: In the 1st and 4th Century After Christ Asian Educational Services,</p><br>
<p>Frazer, James George (2003) Folklore in the Old Testament Studies in Comparative Religion Legend and Law: Studies in Comparative Religion, Legend, and Law Kessinger Publishing,</p><br>
<p>Haran, Menahem (1985) Temples and Temple-Service in Ancient Israel: An Inquiry Into Biblical Cult Phenomena and the Historical Setting of the Priestly School Eisenbrauns,</p><br>
<p>Horne, Thomas Hartwell (1856) An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans & Roberts</p><br>
<p>Jericke, Detlef (2003) Abraham in Mamre: Historische und exegetische Studien zur Region von Hebron unhistorische und exegetische Studien zur Region von Hebr BRILL,</p><br>
<p>Letellier, Robert Ignatius (1995) Day in Mamre, Night in Sodom: Abraham and Lot in Genesis 18 and 19 BRILL,</p><br>
<p>Murphy-O&#39;Connor, Jerome (2008) The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700 Oxford University Press US,</p><br>
<p>Netzer, Ehud and Laureys-Chachy, Rachel (2006) The Architecture of Herod, the Great Builder Mohr Siebeck,</p><br>
<p>Rosenfield, Ben-Zion; Joseph Menirav, Chava Cassel,Markets and Marketing in Roman Palestine, Brill, 2005</p><br>
<p>Safrai, Zeev (1994) The Economy of Roman Palestine, Routledge,</p><br>
<p>Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn (1856) Sinai and Palestine, in Connection with Their History J. Murray,</p><br>
<p>Taylor, Joan E. (1993) Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins Oxford University Press,</p><br>
<p>Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard (1998) Mercer Dictionary of the Bible Mercer University Press,</p><br>
<p>The Black Rock Desert is a semi-arid region , of lava beds and playa, or alkali flats, situated in the Black Rock Desert-High Rock Canyon Emigrant Trails National Conservation Area, a silt playa 100 mi north of Reno, Nevada that encompasses more than 300,000 acre of land and contains more than 120 mi of historic trails. It is in the northern Nevada section of the Great Basin with a lakebed that is a dry remnant of Pleistocene Lake Lahontan. The average annual precipitation  at Gerlach, Nevada  is 7.90 in. The Great Basin, named for the geography in which water is unable to flow out and remains in the basin, is a rugged land serrated by hundreds of mountain ranges, dried by wind and sun, with spectacular skies and scenic landscapes. The region is notable for its paleogeologic features, as an area of 19th-century Emigrant Trails to California, as a venue for rocketry, and as an alternative to the Bonneville Salt Flats in northwestern Utah, for setting land speed records . It is also the location for the annual Burning Man festival.</p><br>
<p>The Black Rock Desert is part of the National Conservation Area (NCA), a unit of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) National Landscape Conservation System (NLCS). The NCA is located in northwest Nevada, and was established by legislation in 2000. It is a unique combination of desert playa, narrow canyons, and mountainous areas.</p><br>
<p>Humans have been in Black Rock Desert since approximately 11,000 BC. In 1300 BC the area was settled by the Paiute people. The large black rock formation was used as a landmark by the Paiute and later emigrants crossing the area. The landmark is a conical outcrop composed of interbedded Permian marine limestone and volcanic rocks. At its base is a large hot spring and grassy meadow, which was an important place for those crossing the desert headed for California and Oregon. In 1843, John Fremont and his party were the first white men to cross the desert, and his trail was used by over half the 22,000 gold seekers headed to California after 1849. In 1867, Hardin City, a short-lived silver mill town was established (now a ghost town).</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Black Rock Desert region is in northwestern Nevada and the northwestern Great Basin. The playa extends for approximately 100 mi northeast from the towns of Gerlach and Empire, between the Jackson Mountains to the east and the Calico Hills to the west.</p><br>
<p>The Black Rock Desert is separated into two arms by the Black Rock Range. It lies at an elevation of 3,907 ft and has an area of about 1,000 square miles.</p><br>
<p>There are several possible definitions of the extent of the Black Rock Desert. Often people refer just to the playa surface. Sometimes terrain which can be seen from the playa is included. The widest definition of the Black Rock Desert region is the watershed of the basin that drains into the playa. The intermittent Quinn River is the largest river in the region, starting in the Santa Rosa Range and ending in the Quinn River Sink on the playa south of the Black Rock Range. The watershed covers 11,600 square miles including the Upper and Lower Quinn River, Smoke Creek Desert, Massacre Lake, and Thousand Creek/Virgin Valley watersheds of northwestern Nevada as well as small parts across the borders of California and Oregon.</p><br>
<p>If the playa is wet for a month or so, the shallow waters teem with fairy shrimp, or anostraca born of eggs that lie dormant in the silt crust for long periods of time - sometimes for many years. The edges of the playa and the Quinn River Sink stay wet longer than the rest of the playa, which concentrates the fairy shrimp and migratory birds in those areas. More than 250 species of neo-tropical migrant birds and many other water birds stop in Black Rock-High Rock Country for varying lengths of time. When wet, especially in spring, the playa is a favorite place for these winged visitors to rest and feed.</p><br>
<p>When it rains, the playa can become extremely sticky, bogging down four-wheel-drive vehicles. Some areas of the Black Rock are environmentally sensitive and closed to all vehicles.</p><br>
<p>Humboldt, Pershing and Washoe Counties of Nevada intersect at the Black Rock Desert.</p><br>
<h3>Mountain ranges</h3><br>
<p>The following mountain ranges are within or bordering the Black Rock Desert region.</p><br>
<p>Antelope Range</p><br>
<p>Badger Mountains</p><br>
<p>Black Rock Range</p><br>
<p>Calico Hills</p><br>
<p>Division Range</p><br>
<p>Fox Range</p><br>
<p>Granite Range</p><br>
<p>Hannan Range</p><br>
<p>High Rock Canyon Hills</p><br>
<p>Hog Ranch Mountains</p><br>
<p>Jackson Mountains</p><br>
<p>Kamma Mountains</p><br>
<p>Little High Rock Mountains</p><br>
<p>Massacre Range</p><br>
<p>Montana Mountains</p><br>
<p>Pine Forest Range</p><br>
<p>Poker Brown Mountains</p><br>
<p>Selenite Range</p><br>
<p>Sentinel Hills</p><br>
<p>Seven Troughs Range</p><br>
<p>Sheephead Mountains</p><br>
<p>Smoke Creek Mountains</p><br>
<p>Yellow Hills</p><br>
<h3>Geologic features</h3><br>
<p>The desert has numerous volcanic and geothermal features of the northwest Nevada volcanic region, including two Black Rock Points (west and east) at the southern end of the Black Rock Range and which have dark Permian volcanic rocks similar to another Permian black diabase dike formation in Nevada.</p><br>
<p>The portion of the Lake Lahontan lakebed in the Black Rock Desert is generally flat with Lahontan salt shrub vegetation, widely scattered hot springs, and a playa. In areas of the lakebed along mountains, rain shadow results in desert precipitation levels.</p><br>
<p>The playa of the Black Rock Desert lakebed is ~200 square miles within an area bounded by the Calico Mountains Wilderness (north), Gerlach (west), the Applegate National Historic Trail (northeast), and the Union Pacific Railroad (south). A Nobles route between Gerlach and Black Rock Hot Springs extends through the length of the playa. The playa&#39;s Quinn River Sink of ~3 square miles is where the Quinn River discharges/evaporates ~2.75 mi south-southwest of Black Rock Hot Springs.</p><br>
<h3>Mining</h3><br>
<p>Prospecting and mining has occurred in the Black Rock region since the mid-19th century. US Gypsum Corporation operated a gypsum mine and drywall (brand named Sheetrock) manufacturing plant in Empire, which employed 107 people and produced 266,300 tons of gypsum in 2008.</p><br>
<p>Allied Nevada Gold Corporation re-opened the Hycroft Gold Mine in 2008 after acquiring it from Vista Gold Corp. Hycroft is a strip-mining operation in the Kamma Mountains near Sulphur on the east side of the Black Rock Desert. An opal mine is in the base of the Calico Hills on the west side of the desert.</p><br>
<h3>Paleontology</h3><br>
<p>Bones of the mammoths that roamed the area around 20,000 BC have been recovered. In 1979 a fossilized Columbian Mammoth was found. Copies of the bones are now exhibited at the Nevada State Museum, Carson City.</p><br>
<h2>Land speed records</h2><br>
<p>The flatness of the Black Rock Deserts lakebed surface has led to the areas use as a proving ground for experimental land vehicles. It was the site of two successful attempts on the World Land Speed Record:</p><br>
<p>In 1983, Richard Noble drove the jet-powered Thrust2 car to a new record of 634.015 mph. Noble also headed up the team that beat the Thrust 2 record.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, ThrustSSC became the world&#39;s first, and so far, the only supersonic car, reaching 763.035 mph.</p><br>
<h2>Rocketry records and attempts</h2><br>
<p>In addition to the flat surface, distance from populated areas and uncontrolled airspace over the area also attract experimentation with rockets. The following are highlights of amateur rocketry records set at Black Rock:</p><br>
<p>On November 23, 1996, the Reaction Research Society launched a rocket to 50 mi in altitude, a significant leap in amateur rocket altitude records at the time.</p><br>
<p>On May 17, 2004, the Civilian Space eXploration Team (CSXT) launched a rocket to 72 mi in altitude, which was the first amateur rocket to exceed the 62.14 mi Karman Line required to claim a space flight.</p><br>
<p>Other rocket launches attempting various altitude records or space flights have occurred at Black Rock. In May 1999, JP Aerospace used a rockoon (balloon-launched rocket) in an unsuccessful suborbital space flight attempt covered by CNN. The rocket reached 75,000 ft, which was far less than the intended Karman Line to reach space. CSXT made unsuccessful space launch attempts in 2000 and 2002 before the successful 2004 space flight. JP Aerospace returned to the desert in 2009, launching an armchair to the edge of space for Space Chair, an advertisement for Toshiba electronic products. On September 21, 2013, the (USCRPL) launched its first space shot attempt, Traveler, intended to achieve a max altitude of 75 mi.</p><br>
<p>The rocket experienced a catastrophic failure 3.5 seconds into flight at an altitude of approximately 10,000 ft. If successful, Traveler would have been the first university/student designed and built rocket to exceed the 62.14 mi Karman Line required to claim a space flight. RPL&#39;s second attempt, Traveler II, flew in May 2014. It also failed catastrophically, approximately one second into the flight.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>More than ~15,000 years ago (15 tya), the Humboldt River flowed to the Smoke Creek-Black Rock Desert sub-basin, and during the recession of Lake Lahontan, the river diverted to the Carson Desert sub-basin. During the highest Lahontan water level (~12.7 tya), the lakebed was under about 500 ft of water, under which sediment accumulated to form a flat lakebed.</p><br>
<p>Great Basin tribes inhabited the area 7.0 tya, and a Frémont Expedition encountered the site in 1843, but the Fortieth Parallel Survey (1867) conducted the first official exploration. In the late 1840s, Peter Lassen led California Trail emigrants through the deserts Applegate-Lassen Cutoff, an arduous route that took them hundreds of miles away from the gold lands of California. By 1910, Western Pacifics Feather River Route (Oakland-Salt Lake City) had been completed across the east side of the lakebed on the "general route first explored by Lieutenant E.G. Beckwith in 1854". By 1927, the desert had been used for filming The Winning of Barbara Worth (the 2003 Mythbusters pilot episode was also filmed in the area).</p><br>
<p>In World War II, 973 square miles of the Black Rock Desert was used for a USAAF aerial gunnery training range, and post-war, the north region of the United States Navy&#39;s Lovelock Aerial Gunnery Range was in the Black Rock Desert area (the Black Rock Desert Gunnery Range had closed by 1964). In 1979, a fossilized Columbian Mammoth was found along the side of the lakebed.</p><br>
<p>The first "Balls" rocket event was held at the desert in 1993, and in 1998, the first annual Gerlach Dash glider race from Reno to the desert was held. For its 30th anniversary, the Black Rock Press published a 1994 book of desert photographs. The Friends of the Black Rock/High Rock organized in 1999, and a National Conservation Area Act the next year created several protected areas of the desert.</p><br>
<p>Also in 2000, Lisa O&#39;Shea died seven days after being scalded in Double Hot Springs when she attempted to rescue two dogs, and the Bureau of Land Management subsequently fenced "Double Hot".</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>Jack Lee Harelson was fined $2.5 million in 2002 for archeological looting of Elephant Mountain Cave, and in 2008, an injured man was rescued when an aircraft pilot radioed for help after noticing him lying face-down on the lakebed. In 2010, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Winnemucca District Office completed a roundup of 1,922 wild horses in the Calico Mountains Complex, of which 39 died of malnutrition due to overgrazing.</p><br>
<p>It is currently the location for the annual Burning Man festival.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Nevada State Route 447 is the areas main highway and connects Gerlach to SR 427 at Wadsworth, Nevada, near Interstate 80. The deserts dirt roads are generally not usable in wet or snowy conditions. Old Highway 34 provides access to the playa on the west side and to the Hualapai Flat. Old Highway 48 (dirt) connects the playa to Lovelock, and Old Highway 49 (Jungo Road, dirt) provides access to the lakebed from the Sulphur and Jungo ghost towns.</p><br>
<p>The Feather River Route uses the lakebed&#39;s east side between Sulphur and Gerlach. Light aircraft have landed on the lakebed for events (the nearby Empire and Reno-Tahoe International Airports provide commercial service for the area).</p><br>
<p>The Delaware Water Gap is a water gap on the border of the USA states of New Jersey and Pennsylvania where the Delaware River cuts through a large ridge of the Appalachian Mountains. The gap constitutes the southern portion of the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, which is used primarily for recreational purposes, such as rafting, canoeing, swimming, fishing, hiking, and rock climbing.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>A water gap is a geological feature where a river cuts through a mountain ridge. The Delaware Water Gap began to form 500 million years ago when quartz pebbles from mountains in the area were deposited in a shallow sea. The Martinsburg Shale on the eastern side of what was to be Kittatinny Mountain was uplifted 450 million years ago when a chain of volcanic islands collided with proto-North America. These islands slid over the North American plate, and deposited rock on top of plate, forming the Highlands and Kittatinny Valley.</p><br>
<p>About 400 million years ago, a small, narrow continent collided with proto-North America. The heat from the pressure melted the quartzite, which allowed it to bend the quartz pebbles and Silurian Shawangunk Conglomerate. This layer was then uplifted and cracked over thousands of years. During this period, the Delaware River slowly cut its path down through the shattered and cracked quartzite. If the quartzite had not been cracked, the river would not have been able to cut its path through the mountain to form the gap.</p><br>
<p>Millions of years of rain, ice, snow, and wind erosion shaped the area. The Wisconsin glaciation, which occurred between 21,000 B.C. and 13,000 B.C., covered the entire Kittatinny Ridge and ended near Belvidere. When the glaciers retreated, the gap which was already there assumed its present form.</p><br>
<p>The mountain consists of Silurian Shawangunk conglomerate. This is gray quartzite, which makes the mountain highly resistant to weathering. The Silurian High Fall formation of sandstone is on the western side of the gap near the base. The eastern side of the gap has Ordovician Martinsburg shale. Sedimentary rock is along the river. The Bloomsburg Red Beds, a red shale, are at the gap under Dunsfield Creek.</p><br>
<p>The Delaware Water Gap is about 300 m across at river level and 1,400 m wide at the top. The river through the gap is 283 feet above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The ridge of the Appalachians that the Delaware crosses is called the Blue Mountains in Pennsylvania and the Kittatinny Ridge in New Jersey. This is the first major ridge of the Appalachian mountains. The New Jersey mountain is Mount Tammany, named after the Native American Chief Tamanend. The Pennsylvania mountain is Mount Minsi, named after the Native American tribe of the area. The summit of Tammany is 1,540 ft above sea level.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>A northern deciduous forest cloaks the slopes of the Delaware Water Gap. Hardwood species comprising the forest include various oaks, hickories, maples, ash, elm, cherry, walnut, birch, sycamore, and beech. Coniferous species include Eastern White Pine, Pitch Pine, Eastern Red Cedar, and Eastern Hemlock. Black bear, whitetailed deer, gray squirrels, red squirrels, raccoons, gray fox, fisher, and chipmunks are some of the forest species of the area. Shad migrate up the river through the gap in the spring. Other fish include bass, trout, carp, and walleye. Timber rattlesnakes and copperheads also inhabit the rocky areas of the mountain. Salamanders are found in the moist areas of the forest. Eastern Prickly Pear Cactus also grows on the mountain near the red dot trail on the south eastern facing slope halfway up the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Foot travel was not possible through the Gap on the New Jersey side or Pennsylvania side as steep rock walls went into the river. In 1793 a road was built on the Pennsylvania side of the river. In 1830 a road was built on the New Jersey side through the Gap and north toward Pahaquarry. Interstate 80 passes through the gap on the New Jersey side as of the early 1970s via the Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge. The Pennsylvania portion of the New Jersey Cut-Off mainline of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad comes into Slateford, PA. The Pennsylvania Northeast Regional Rail Authority owns the trackage in the Water Gap area and is operated by the Delaware-Lackawanna Railroad. Pennsylvania Route 611, which is adjacent to the railroad for most of way through the Gap, occupies the right-of-way of a former trolley line. Interstate 80 occupies the former right-of-way of the New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway.</p><br>
<h2>Tocks Island and the National Park Service</h2><br>
<p>In 1962, Congress authorized the building of a dam across the Delaware River at Tocks Island, upstream of the water gap. Meant to control hurricane-related flooding, it was never built. The land for the proposed reservoir, which had already been purchased, was used to create the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area in 1965.</p><br>
<p>There are two visitor centers, one in New Jersey near the Delaware River bridge and the other in Dingman&#39;s Ferry, Pennsylvania. Headquarters is located on River Road in Pennsylvania. The New Jersey side of the gap is also protected within Worthington State Forest, a New Jersey State Forest wholly contained within the recreation area.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking trails</h2><br>
<p>The Red Dot Trail is a path to the top of the Kittatinny Ridge, which has views of the entire area. This is roughly a one-hour hike, traversing over 600 vertical feet. The red dot trail is highly eroded due to weather and large numbers of hikers. The Gray Dot Trail is a very steep climber&#39;s trail that goes from I-80 to the top of the gap along the top edge of the big wall. The trail has shale and rocks which make hiking very difficult. The gray dot trail is poorly marked. This trail intersects with the blue dot and red dot trail at the top. The hike up the gray dot trail and down the red dot trail takes about two hours and fifteen minutes. The blue dot also goes to the top, but is about a 3-mile hike that is less steep than the red dot.</p><br>
<p>The Appalachian Trail crosses the Delaware River on the Route 80 Bridge and goes up Dunfield Creek to Sunfish Pond and continues northeast to Stokes State Forest. The trail crosses Route 206 and continues along the top of Kittatinny Mountain to High Point State Park where the trail turns east and eventually goes into New York State. This part of the Appalachian Trail is maintained by the New York - New Jersey Trail Conference hiking club.</p><br>
<h2>Rock climbing</h2><br>
<p>The Gap is a popular place to rock-climb in New Jersey. The climbs are 150 to 300 ft, climbing on Silurian Shawagunk conglomerate, which is quartzite, with bands of shale from a half inch to four inches thick. Most climbing is done on the New Jersey side due to easier access. There are about one hundred climbs on the New Jersey side. Climbs range form 5.1 to 5.14 on the Yosemite scale. Climbers follow the gray dot trail along route 80, then passing the large rock face on route 80. They then go up the path to the route they choose.</p><br>
<p>In recent years, the Pennsylvania side has been closed to climbing during the nesting season for peregrine falcons; this has resulted in overgrowth of trails and climbing routes, providing an experience closer to the natural state than is found at more popular climbing destinations.</p><br>
<h2>Boy Scout camps</h2><br>
<p>The Easton Area Council of the Boy Scouts of America operated Weygadt Scout Reservation in the Delaware Water Gap at the base of Mount Tammany from 1931 until 1968. In the later part of the 1930s, the Bethlehem Council moved their camp to the Poconos, and the entire reservation in the Water Gap became Camp Weygadt. Camp Minsi is now located in Pocono Summit, Pennsylvania, on the shores of Stillwater Lake.</p><br>
<p>Pahaquarra Boy Scout Camp was located on the New Jersey side of the Delaware Water Gap on Old Mine Road at the abandoned Pahaquarry Copper Mine. The camp served Boy Scouts from the George Washington Council. Just north of this camp was Camp Cowaw Boy Scout Camp which served Raritan Council Boy Scouts.</p><br>
<p>Oklo is a region near the town of Franceville, in the Haut-Ogooué province of the Central African state of Gabon. Several natural nuclear fission reactors were discovered in the uranium mines in the region during 1972.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Gabon was a French colony when prospectors from the French nuclear energy commissariat (the industrial parts, which later became the COGEMA and later Areva NC) discovered uranium in the remote region in 1956. France immediately opened mines operated by Comuf (Compagnie des Mines d&#39;Uranium de Franceville) near Mounana village in order to exploit the vast mineral resources and the State of Gabon was given a minority share in the company.</p><br>
<p>For forty years, France mined for uranium in Gabon. Once extracted, the uranium was used for electricity production in France and much of Europe. Today, however, the uranium deposits are exhausted, and the mine is no longer worked. Currently, mine reclamation work is ongoing in the region affected by the mine operations.</p><br>
<p>There is strong geochemical evidence that the Oklo uranium deposit behaved as a natural nuclear fission reactor in Precambrian times: some of the mined uranium was found to have a lower concentration of uranium-235 than expected, as if it had already been in a reactor. Geologists found that it had been in a reactor before—two billion years ago. At that time the natural uranium had a concentration of about 3% U, and could have gone critical with natural water as neutron moderator.</p><br>
<p>Mystras or Mistras , also known as Myzithras  in the Chronicle of the Morea, is a fortified town and a former municipality in Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece. Situated on Mt. Taygetos, near ancient Sparta, it served as the capital of the Byzantine Despotate of the Morea in the 14th and 15th centuries, experiencing a period of prosperity and cultural flowering. The site remained inhabited throughout the Ottoman period, when it was mistaken by Western travellers for ancient Sparta. In the 1830s, it was abandoned and the new town of Sparti was built, approximately eight kilometres to the east.</p><br>
<p>Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Sparti, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 131.948 km.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In late 1248, William II of Villehardouin, ruler of the Frankish Principality of Achaea, captured Monemvasia, the last remaining Byzantine outpost on the Morea. This success was soon followed by the submission of the restive Tsakones on Mount Parnon, the Slavic Melingoi tribe of Mount Taygetos, and the inhabitants of the Mani peninsula, thereby extending his sway over all of Laconia and completing the conquest of the peninsula, which had begun in 1205, in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade. Laconia was incorporated into the princely domain, and the young prince passed the winter of 1248–49 there, touring the country and selecting sites for new fortifications such as Grand Magne and Leuktron; finally, near his residence of Lacedaemon (ancient Sparta), on a spur of Mount Taygetos, he built the fortress that came to be known as Mystras.</p><br>
<p>In September 1259, William of Villehardouin was defeated and captured, along with many of his nobles, at the Battle of Pelagonia, by the forces of the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos. Two years later, the Nicaeans recaptured Constantinople, putting an end to the Latin Empire and restoring the Byzantine Empire. At this point, the emperor concluded an agreement with the captive prince: William and his men would be set free in exchange for an oath of fealty, and for the cession of Monemvasia, Grand Magne, and Mystras. The handover was effected in 1262, and henceforth Mystras was the seat of the governor of the Byzantine territories in the Morea. Initially this governor (kephale) was changed every year, but after 1308 they started being appointed for longer terms. Almost immediately on his return to the Morea, William of Villehardouin renounced his oath to the emperor, and warfare broke out between Byzantines and Franks. The first Byzantine attempts to subdue the Principality of Achaea were beaten back in the battles of Prinitsa and Makryplagi, but the Byzantines were firmly ensconced in Laconia. Warfare became endemic, and the Byzantines slowly pushed the Franks back. The insecurity engendered by the raids and counter-raids caused the inhabitants of Lacedaemon to abandon their exposed city and settle at Mystras, in a new town built under the shadow of the fortress.</p><br>
<p>From 1348 until its surrender to the Ottoman Turks on 31 May 1460, Mystras was the residence of a Despot who ruled over the Byzantine Morea, known as the "Despotate of the Morea". This was the city&#39;s golden age; according to the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Mystras "witnessed a remarkable cultural renaissance, including the teaching of Plethon, and attracted artists and architects of the highest quality".</p><br>
<p>The frescos in the Peribleptos Monastery Church, dating between 1348 and 1380, are a very rare surviving late Byzantine cycle, crucial for the understanding of Byzantine art.</p><br>
<p>Mystras was also the last centre of Byzantine scholarship; the Neoplatonist philosopher George Gemistos Plethon lived there until his death in 1452. He and other scholars based in Mystras influenced the Italian Renaissance, especially after he accompanied the emperor John VIII Palaiologos to Florence in 1439.</p><br>
<p>The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, was despot at Mystras before he came to the throne. Demetrius Palaeologus the last despot of Morea, surrendered the city to the Ottoman emperor Mehmed II in 1460. As Mezistre, it was the seat of a Turkish sanjak. The Venetians occupied it from 1687 to 1715, but otherwise the Ottomans held it until 1821 and the beginning of the Greek War of Independence. It was abandoned under King Otto for the newly rebuilt town of Sparta.</p><br>
<p>In 1989 the ruins, including the fortress, palace, churches, and monasteries, were named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Mystras is situated on the slopes of Taygetos Mountain. The archaeological site stands above the modern village of Mystras and the city of Sparta. The greenery surrounding the area is composed mainly by pine trees and cypresses. Some small rivers and lakes are found in the region.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Mystras is subdivided into the following communities:</p><br>
<p>Agia Eirini</p><br>
<p>Agios Ioannis Lakedaimonas</p><br>
<p>Anavryti</p><br>
<p>Barsinikos</p><br>
<p>Longastra</p><br>
<p>Magoula</p><br>
<p>Mystras</p><br>
<p>Paroreio</p><br>
<p>Soustianoi</p><br>
<p>Trypi</p><br>
<p>The municipality seat of Mystras is in Magoula.</p><br>
<h3>Historical population</h3><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<h3>People from Mystras</h3><br>
<p>Gemistus Pletho (usually called Plethon) (1355–1452), philosopher and scholar</p><br>
<p>Manuel Kantakouzenos, first Despot of Morea</p><br>
<h3>People buried in Mystras</h3><br>
<p>John VI Kantakouzenos</p><br>
<p>Manuel Kantakouzenos</p><br>
<p>Gemistus Pletho</p><br>
<p>Theodora Tocco</p><br>
<p>Cleofe Malatesta</p><br>
<h2>Plan</h2><br>
<p>1. Main entrance</p><br>
<p>2. Metropolis</p><br>
<p>3. Evangelistria Church</p><br>
<p>4. Church of Saints Theodores</p><br>
<p>5. Hodigitria-Afendiko</p><br>
<p>6. Monemvasia Gate</p><br>
<p>7. Church of Saint Nicholas</p><br>
<p>8. Despot&#39;s Palace and square</p><br>
<p>9. Nauplia Gate</p><br>
<p>10. Upper entrance to the citadel</p><br>
<p>11. Church of Hagia Sophia</p><br>
<p>12. Small Palace</p><br>
<p>13. Citadel</p><br>
<p>14. Mavroporta</p><br>
<p>15. Pantanassa</p><br>
<p>16. Church of the Taxiarchs</p><br>
<p>17. House of John Phrangopoulos</p><br>
<p>18. Peribleptos Monastery</p><br>
<p>19. Church of Saint George</p><br>
<p>20. Krevatas House</p><br>
<p>21. Marmara (entrance)</p><br>
<p>22. Aï-Yannakis</p><br>
<p>23. Laskaris&#39; House</p><br>
<p>24. Church of Saint Christopher</p><br>
<p>25. Ruins</p><br>
<p>26. Church of Saint Kyriaki.</p><br>
<p>The Mogollon Rim  or ) is a topographical and geological feature cutting across the U.S. state of Arizona. It extends approximately 200 mi, starting in northern Yavapai County and running eastward, ending near the border with New Mexico. It forms the southern edge of the Colorado Plateau in Arizona.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Rim is an escarpment defining the southwestern edge of the Colorado Plateau. Its central and most spectacular portions are characterized by high cliffs of limestone and sandstone, namely the Kaibab Limestone and Coconino Sandstone cliffs. The escarpment was created by erosion and faulting, cutting dramatic canyons into it, including Fossil Creek Canyon and Pine Canyon. The name Mogollon comes from Don Juan Ignacio Flores Mogollón, the Spanish Governor of New Mexico from 1712 to 1715.</p><br>
<p>Much of the land south of the Mogollon Rim lies 4000 to 5000 ft above sea level, with the escarpment rising to about 8,000 ft. Extensive Ponderosa pine forests are found both on the slopes of the Rim and on the plateau north of it. The Mogollon Rim is a major floristic and faunal boundary, with species characteristic of the Rocky Mountains living on the top of the plateau, and species native to the Mexican Sierra Madre Occidental on the slopes below and in the Madrean sky islands (high, isolated mountain ranges) further south.</p><br>
<p>The Mogollon Rims limestones and sandstones were formed from sediments deposited in the Carboniferous and Permian Periods. Several of the Rims rock formations are also seen on the walls of the Grand Canyon. In many places, the Rim is capped or even buried by the extensive basaltic lava flows.</p><br>
<p>The uppermost sandstone stratum of the Mogollon Rim, called the Coconino Sandstone, forms spectacular white cliffs, sometimes several hundred feet high. This formation of the Permian Period is of aeolian (windblown) origin and is one of the thickest sand-dune-derived sandstones on earth.</p><br>
<p>Cities and towns near the Mogollon Rim include Payson, Sedona, Show Low, Alpine and Pinetop-Lakeside. The Mogollon Rim is practically bisected by Interstate 17 which runs north-to-south between Flagstaff and Phoenix.</p><br>
<p>In June 2002, the eastern portion of the Mogollon Rim was the site of Arizonas second-largest wildfire, the 470,000 acre Rodeo-Chediski fire. The Mogollon Rim was also the site of the Dude fire that started on June 25, 1990. This fire grew to cover over 30,000 acre and killed six wildland firefighters. Other large fires have burned along the Mogollon Rim since 1990, and the areas Ponderosa pine forests remain vulnerable because of past fire-suppression efforts and the buildup of available dry fuel.</p><br>
<p>Western novel author Zane Grey built a hunting cabin on the slopes of the Mogollon Rim just northeast of Payson, above Tonto Creek. The cabin was restored by the Phoenix air-conditioning magnate William Goettl during the late 1960s, but it was destroyed by the Dude Fire in 1990. Louis LAmours novel The Sackett Brand, set near the Mogollon Rim, includes descriptions of its cliffs.</p><br>
<p>The Mer de Glace is a valley glacier located on the northern slopes of the Mont Blanc massif, in the French Alps. It is 7.5 km long and 200 m deep but, when all its tributary glaciers are taken into account, it can be regarded as the longest and largest glacier in France, and the second longest in the Alps after the Aletsch Glacier.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>In its strictest sense, the Mer de Glace can be considered as originating at an elevation of 2,100 m, just north of the Aiguille du Tacul, where it is formed by the confluence of the Glacier de Leschaux and the Glacier du Tacul. The former is fed by the Glacier du Talefre, whilst the latter is, in turn, fed by the Glacier des Periardes, the vast Glacier du Géant and the broad icefields of the Vallee Blanche. The Glacier du Tacul supplies much more ice than the Glacier de Leschaux.</p><br>
<p>However, if the Mer de Glace is considered in its broadest sense (i.e. from source to tongue), it is a compound valley glacier, gaining ice from snowfields that cover the heights directly north of Mont Blanc at an altitude of around 4,000 metres. It flows for a total distance of 12 kilometres, covering an area of 32 square kilometres in the central third of the Mont Blanc massif.</p><br>
<p>From the Aiguille du Tacul, the Mer de Glace flows north-north-west between Aiguille du Moine on the east and Trélaporte on the west. It descends below Montenvers, at which point it is approximately 0.5 km wide, and descends to approximately 1,500 m. The glacier was once easily visible from Chamonix but has been shrinking backwards, and is now barely visible from below. The surface topography of the Mer de Glace changed very little during the first third of the 20th century, but from 1939 to 2001 the surface of the glacier has lowered an average of 30 cm each year, corresponding to an equivalent loss of 700 million cubic metres of water.</p><br>
<p>The glacier lies above the Chamonix valley, and was the first place in the region to have a ready-made tourist attraction.</p><br>
<p>Like all glaciers, the Mer de Glace is in balance between two phenomena: accumulation, notably due to winter snowfall, and ablation, essentially due to summer melting. The Mer de Glace flows continuously under the effect of its own weight, causing crevasses, seracs or pockets of water to form, depending on the terrain over which it moves. Its speed, although not perceptible to the naked eye, is considerable. From more than 120 m a year in its upper part, the Mer de Glace moves about 90 m per year in the region of Montenvers, which is about one centimetre per hour. The pressure within the ice is known to reach at least 30 atmospheres.</p><br>
<p>When the tension in the ice increases as the slope increases, the glacier is unable to deform and crevasses appear. These are notably transversal and, when there is intense crevasse activity on the steepest terrain, blocks of seracs appear as the glacier breaks up. Crevasses are of variable depth, depending on their position, and may be as deep as fifty metres. Seracs always form in the same places, namely the steepest sections over which the glacier flows. As crevasses open and seracs tumble downstream, the supply of ice is renewed by the constant flow from upstream. Broad banding patterns, visible on the surface of the Mer de Glace, are known as ogives, or Forbes bands, and result from differences in summer and winter collapse rates of the serac fields. It was on 24 July 1842 that Scottish physicist James David Forbes observed the pattern of light and dark dirt bands on the Mer de Glace from the nearby Charmoz and began to consider whether glaciers flowed in a similar fashion to a sluggish river and with a viscous or plastic manner.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the 18th and 19th centuries the glacier descended all the way down to the hamlet of LesBos, where it was known as Glacier des Boys. At that time the river Arveyron emerged from the glacier under a grotto-like vault (grotte dArveyron) and, through the accounts of early writers and explorers, attracted many more visitors, painters and later photographers, for example Joseph Mallord William Turners "Source of the Arveron in the Valley of Chamouni Savoy", 1816. The position of its front end fluctuated over the years but its maximum extent was in the mid-19th century.</p><br>
<h2>Electricity generation</h2><br>
<p>Sub glacial waters from the Mer de Glace are used seasonally by EDF for the generation of hydroelectricity. Tunnels bored under the glacier collect water from the base of the glacier and channel it down to a hydropower plant in the valley. This water is then discharged into the Arveyron further downstream.</p><br>
<p>Vatican Hill  is a hill located across the Tiber river from the traditional seven hills of Rome. It is the location of St. Peter&#39;s Basilica.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The ancient Romans had several opinions about the derivation of the Latin word Vaticanus. Varro (1st century BC) connected it to a Deus Vaticanus or Vagitanus, a Roman deity thought to endow infants with the capacity for speech evidenced by their first wail (vagitus, the first syllable of which is pronounced wa in Classical Latin). Varro&#39;s rather complicated explanation relates this function to the tutelary deity of the place and to the advanced powers of speech possessed by a prophet (vates), as preserved by the later antiquarian Aulus Gellius:</p><br>
<p>We have been told that the word Vatican is applied to the hill, and the deity who presides over it, from the vaticinia, or prophecies, which took place there by the power and inspiration of the god; but Marcus Varro, in his book on Divine Things, gives another reason for this name. "As Aius," says he, "was called a deity, and an altar was built to his honour in the lowest part of the new road, because in that place a voice from heaven was heard, so this deity was called Vaticanus, because he presided over the principles of the human voice; for infants, as soon as they are born, make the sound which forms the first syllable in Vaticanus, and are therefore said vagire (to cry) which word expresses the noise which an infant first makes".</p><br>
<p>St. Augustine, who was familiar with Varro&#39;s works on ancient Roman theology, mentions this deity three times in The City of God.</p><br>
<p>Vaticanus is more likely to derive in fact from the name of an Etruscan settlement, possibly called Vatica or Vaticum, located in the general area the Romans called vaticanus ager, "Vatican territory". If such a settlement existed, however, no trace of it has been discovered. The consular fasti preserve a personal name Vaticanus in the mid-5th century BC, of unknown relation to the place name.</p><br>
<h2>Topography of ancient Rome</h2><br>
<p>Vaticanus Mons (or Vaticanus Collis) was most often a name in Classical Latin for the Janiculum. Cicero uses the plural form Vaticani Montes in a context that seems to include the modern Vatican Hill as well as the Monte Mario and the Janiculan hill.</p><br>
<p>The Vaticanum or Campus Vaticanus was originally a level area between the Vaticanus Mons and the Tiber. During the Republican era, it was an unwholesome site frequented by the destitute. Caligula and Nero used the area for chariot exercises, as at the Gaianum, and renewal was encouraged by the building of the Circus of Nero, also known as the Circus Vaticanus or simply the Vaticanum. The location of tombs near the Circus Vaticanus is mentioned in a few late sources.</p><br>
<p>The Vaticanum was also the site of the Phrygianum, a temple of the Magna Mater goddess Cybele. Although secondary to this deitys main worship on the Palatine Hill, this temple gained such fame in the ancient world that both Lyon, in Gaul, and Mainz, in Germany called their own Magna Mater compounds "Vaticanum" in imitation. Remnants of this structure were encountered in the Seventeenth Century reconstruction of St. Peters Square.</p><br>
<p>Vaticanus Mons came to refer to the modern Vatican Hill as a result of calling the whole area the "Vatican" (Vaticanum). Christian usage of the name was spurred by the martyrdom of St. Peter there. Beginning in the early 4th century AD, construction began on the Old St. Peters Basilica over a cemetery that is the traditional site of St. Peters tomb. Around this time, the name Vaticanus Mons was established in its modern usage, and the Janiculum hill was distinguished from it as the Ianiculensis Mons.</p><br>
<p>Another cemetery nearby was opened to the public on 10 October 2006 to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the Vatican Museums.</p><br>
<h2>Christian history</h2><br>
<p>The Vatican Hill was included within the city limits of Rome during the reign of Pope Leo IV, who, between 848 and 852, expanded the city walls to protect St. Peter&#39;s Basilica and the Vatican. Thus, Vatican Hill has been within the walls and city limits of Rome for over 1100 years. Until the Lateran Treaties in 1929 it was part of the Rione of Borgo.</p><br>
<p>Before the Avignon Papacy (1305–1378), the headquarters of the Holy See were located at the Lateran Palace. After the Avignon Papacy the church administration moved to Vatican Hill and the papal palace was (until 1871) the Quirinal Palace, upon the Quirinal Hill. Since 1929, part of the Vatican Hill is the site of the State of the Vatican City. However, the cathedral of the Bishop of Rome, the Pope, is not St. Peter&#39;s in the Vatican, but Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano, which is extra-territorially linked, as indicated in the Lateran Pacts signed with the Italian state in 1929, with the Holy See.</p><br>
<p>The Cuillin  is a range of rocky mountains located on the Isle of Skye in Scotland. The true Cuillin is also known as the Black Cuillin to distinguish it from the Red Cuillin  across Glen Sligachan. The Red Cuillin hills are lower and, being less rocky, have fewer scrambles or climbs.</p><br>
<p>The highest point of the Cuillin, and of the Isle of Skye, is Sgùrr Alasdair in the Black Cuillin at 992 m (3,255 ft). The Cuillin is one of 40 National Scenic Areas in Scotland.</p><br>
<h2>Black Cuillin</h2><br>
<p>The peaks of the Black Cuillin are mainly composed of gabbro, a very rough black igneous rock which provides a superb grip for mountaineers, and basalt, which can be very slippery when wet. The summits of the Cuillin are bare rock, jagged in outline and with steep cliffs and deep cut corries and gullies. Twelve Black Cuillin peaks are listed as Munros, though one of them, Blaven, is part of a group of outliers separated from the main ridge by Glen Sligachan.</p><br>
<p>The scrambler can access most of the individual peaks by their easiest routes. Only the Inaccessible Pinnacle is a graded rock climb (Moderate) by its simplest line but several of the other summits require scrambling skills.</p><br>
<p>There are no natural sources of water on the ridge (except for winter snows and melt water): all water must be carried by the visitor.</p><br>
<h3>Climbing the Black Cuillin Traverse</h3><br>
<p>In addition to climbing individual peaks, there is the challenge of a full traverse of the ridge. Although only seven miles in length, the average traverse is likely to take 15–20 hours from sea level at Glenbrittle to the bar of the Sligachan Hotel owing to the difficulty of the terrain and route-finding problems. The first recorded traverse in under 24 hours was in 1911 by L. Shadbolt and A. McLaren. The record for the full traverse, set by Finlay Wild in October 2013, stands at 2 hours, 59 minutes and 22 seconds (though this time is from Gars-bheinn to Sgùrr nan Gillean and does not include the initial ascent from Glenbrittle or the final descent to Sligachan).</p><br>
<p>A longer traverse of the Black Cuillin, (including all the Skye Munros, though omitting some gabbro outliers) is the Greater Traverse; this involves continuing on to Clach Glas and Blaven. This traverse was first done independently by two parties, in the summer of 1939, with I Charleson and W Forde claiming precedence over W. H. Murray & R. G. Donaldon a few weeks later. - (see W. H. Murray&#39;s book for details of his traverse).</p><br>
<p>Some believe the ultimate mountaineering experience of the UK is the full traverse of the Cuillin Ridge, especially under winter conditions. The Isle of Skye&#39;s position in the warm Gulf Stream makes genuine winter conditions rare, and the very short winter days probably make a 24-hour traverse impractical. The first recorded, over two days, was in 1965 by D Crabbe, B Robertson, T Patey and H MacInnes.</p><br>
<p>The Cuillin is perhaps the only range in the United Kingdom to approach in sheer jagged rawness (though not of course in height) the mountain experience of such ranges as the Alps or Rockies.</p><br>
<h2>Red Hills (Red Cuillin)</h2><br>
<p>The Red Hills (Na Beanntan Dearga in Gaelic) are sometimes known as the Red Cuillin. They are mainly composed of granite which is paler than the gabbro (with a reddish tinge from some angles in some lights) and has weathered into more rounded hills with vegetation cover to summit level and long scree slopes on their flanks.</p><br>
<p>The highest point of the hills is Glamaig, one of only two Corbetts on Skye (the other being Garbh-bheinn, part of the small group of gabbro outliers surrounding Blà Bheinn).</p><br>
<h2>Major peaks</h2><br>
<p>Here is a list of Munros, Corbetts and Grahams of the Cuillin. This listing excludes peaks such as Clach Glas which in hill walking/mountaineering terms are considered of significance.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Battle of Coire Na Creiche was fought on the slopes below Bruach na Frìthe in 1601. It was the last Scottish clan battle fought on Skye, in which the Clan MacDonald of Sleat defeated the Clan MacLeod after a bitter feud.</p><br>
<p>In 2000 the Cuillin were put on sale for £10 million by the Laird in a scheme of land in exchange for repairs to Dunvegan Castle. Following a dispute over ownership, a deal was cut for the property to be gifted in return for repairs to the clan castle.</p><br>
<p>There is a legend that the Cuillins are haunted by the ghost of an outlaw called MacRaing.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>The Cuillin is a key thematic device in the Gaelic-language family film Seachd: The Inaccessible Pinnacle.</p><br>
<p>One of Sorley MacLean&#39;s best known poems is the epic The Cuillin.</p><br>
<p>The band Runrig recorded the song, "Nightfall on Marsco".</p><br>
<p>According to legend, the Cuillin take their name from the Gaelic hero, Cúchulainn, although this is probably a folk etymology. Legend has it that Cúchulainn learned martial arts from the warrior woman, Scáthach, who was said to have a school in Skye.</p><br>
<p>The song The Road to the Isles mentions the Cuillin in the first verse and in each chorus.</p><br>
<p>The murder mystery novel Wildfire at Midnight by Mary Stewart is set in and around the Cuillin.</p><br>
<p>The spy novel Mr. Standfast by John Buchan has a chapter set around The Cuillin ("Coolins" in the book).</p><br>
<p>The Inaccessible Pinnacle is the scene of a death in Val McDermid&#39;s "Trick of the Dark".</p><br>
<p>Brave contains a song which refers to a legendary bear being "bigger than a Cuillin".</p><br>
<p>In Jethro Tull&#39;s song "Broadford Bazaar," reference is made to "wee plastic Cuillins."</p><br>
<p>The Black Cuillin Traverse is featured in episode 2 of Running Wild With Bear Grylls.</p><br>
<p>Trials cyclist Danny MacAskill, who grew up on the Isle of Skye, filmed the mountain bike edit The Ridge on the Cuillin</p><br>
<p>The Truth Is a Cave in the Black Mountains, an illustrated novella by Neil Gaiman and Eddie Campbell, features a legendary cave of gold in the Black Cuillin.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tai or Lake Taihu  is a large freshwater lake in the Yangtze Delta plain in Wuxi, China. The lake belongs to Jiangsu and the southern shore forms its border with Zhejiang. With an area of 2,250 km&sup2; and an average depth of 2 m, it is the third-largest freshwater lake in China, after Poyang and Dongting. The lake houses about 90 islands, ranging in size from a few square meters to several square kilometers.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tai is linked to the renowned Grand Canal and is the origin of a number of rivers, including Suzhou Creek. In recent years, Lake Tai has been plagued by pollution as the surrounding region experienced rapid industrial development.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Also translated as Tai or Tai Lake and as Taihu or Tai-hu Lake.</p><br>
<h2>Formation</h2><br>
<p>Scientific studies suggest that Lake Tai&#39;s circular structure is the result of a meteor impact based on the discovery of shatter cones, shock-metamorphosed quartz, microtektites, and shock-metamorphic unloading fractures. The prospective impact crater has been dated to be greater than 70 million years old and possibly from the late Devonian Period. However, new research suggests that present evidence shows no impact crater structure or shock-mineral at Lake Tai. Fossils indicate that Lake Tai was dry land until the ingression of the East China Sea during the Holocene epoch. The growing deltas of the Yangtze and Qiantang rivers eventually sealed off Lake Tai from the sea, and the influx of fresh water from rivers and rains turned it into a freshwater lake.</p><br>
<h2>Scenic locations</h2><br>
<p>The lake is renowned for its unique limestone formations at the foot of the adjacent Dongting Mountain (洞庭山). These "scholar&#39;s rocks" or "Taihu stones" are often prized as a decorating material for traditional Chinese gardens, as exemplified by those preserved as museums in nearby Suzhou.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tai is best seen from atop the Dragon Light Pagoda in western Wuxi&#39;s Xihui Park, from which both Wuxi and Lake Tai are visible. Another well-known panoramic view, made famous by an 11th-century poem by Su Shi, is that from Longshan.</p><br>
<p>Three of the lake&#39;s islands are preserved as a national geological park under the name Sanshan. They are famed as a former haunt of local bandits. Mei Yuan is also located in Lake Tai, along with Yuantouzhu. Yuantouzhu received its name ("Turtle Head Isle") from the shape of its outline.</p><br>
<h2>Business and industry</h2><br>
<p>The lake is also known for its productive fishing industry and is often occupied by fleets of small private fishing boats. Since the late 1970s, harvesting food products such as fish and crabs has been invaluable to people living along the lake and has contributed significantly to the economy of the surrounding area.</p><br>
<p>The lake is home to an extensive ceramics-industry, including the Yixing pottery-factory, which produces the world-renowned Yixing clay teapots.</p><br>
<h2>Ferris wheel</h2><br>
<p>The Star of Lake Tai is a 115 m tall giant Ferris wheel on the shoreline of the lake. Completed in 2008, it takes 18 minutes to complete one revolution. Passengers can enjoy the scenery of Lake Tai and the city center. At night, lighting effects are switched on around the wheel.</p><br>
<h2>Pollution</h2><br>
<p>Pollution of the lake has been ongoing for decades despite efforts to reduce pollution that were not sustained and thus proved ineffective. In the 1980s and 1990s the number of industries in the lake region has tripled, while the population also increased significantly. One billion tons of wastewater, 450,000 tons of garbage and 880,000 tons of animal waste were dumped in the shallow lake in 1993 alone. The central government intervened and initiated a campaign to clean up the lake, setting a deadline to comply with pollution standards. When the deadline was not met, 128 factories were closed on New Year&#39;s Eve in 1999. Compliance improved somewhat afterwards, but the pollution problem remained severe. In May 2007, the lake was overtaken by a major algae bloom and by major pollution with cyanobacteria. The Chinese government called the lake a major natural disaster despite the anthropogenic origin of this environmental catastrophe. With the average price of bottled water rising to six times the normal rate, the government banned all regional water providers from implementing price hikes. The lake provides water to 30 million residents, including about one million in Wuxi. By October 2007 it was reported that the Chinese government had shut down or given notice to over 1,300 factories around the lake. However, Wu Lihong, one of the leading environmentalists who had been publicizing the pollution of the lake, was sentenced to three years in prison for alleged extortion of one of the polluters, but, undeterred, alleged in 2010 that not a single factory was closed. Jiangsu province planned to clean up the lake, and chaired by Wen Jiabao the State Council set a target to clean Lake Tai by 2012. However, in 2010 The Economist reported that a fresh pollution outbreak had occurred, and that Wu, released from prison in April, was claiming that the government was trying to suppress news of it, all the while switching to other supplies in place of lake water.</p><br>
<p>Tungurahua, , rahua : "Throat of Fire" or from Panzaleo) is an active stratovolcano located in the Cordillera Oriental of Ecuador. The volcano gives its name to the province of Tungurahua. Volcanic activity restarted on August 19, 1999, and is ongoing, with several major eruptions since then, the last starting on 1 February 2014.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>According to one theory the name Tungurahua is a combination of the Quichua tunguri (throat) and rahua (fire) meaning "Throat of Fire". According to another theory it is based on the Quichua uraua for crater. Tungurahua is also known as "The Black Giant" and, in local indigenous mythology it is allegedly referred to as Mama Tungurahua ("Mother Tungurahua").</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<h3>Location</h3><br>
<p>Tungurahua 5,023 m is located in the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes of central Ecuador, 140 km south of the capital Quito. Nearby notable mountains are Chimborazo (6,310 m) and El Altar (5,319 m). It rises above the small thermal springs town of Baños de Agua Santa (1,800 m) which is located at its foot 8 km to the north. Other nearby towns are Ambato (30 km to the northwest), Baños and Riobamba (30 km to the southwest). Tungurahua is part of the Sangay National Park.</p><br>
<h3>Glacier</h3><br>
<p>With its elevation of 5,023 m, Tungurahua just over tops the snow line (about 4,900 m). Tungurahua&#39;s top is snow-covered and did feature a small summit glacier which melted away after the increase of volcanic activity in 1999.</p><br>
<h3>Volcanism</h3><br>
<p>Todays volcanic edifice (Tungurahua III) is constructed inside its predecessors (Tungurahua II) caldera which collapsed about 3000 (±90) years ago. The original edifice (Tungurahua I) collapsed at the end of the Late Pleistocene.</p><br>
<h4>Historical volcanic activity</h4><br>
<p>Tungurahua&#39;s eruptions are strombolian. They produce andesite and dacite. All historical eruptions originated from the summit crater and have been accompanied by strong explosions, pyroclastic flows and sometimes lava flows. In the last 1,300 years Tungurahua entered every 80 to 100 years into an activity phase of which the major have been the ones of 1773, 1886 and 1916–1918.</p><br>
<h4>Recent volcanic activity</h4><br>
<p>In 2000, after a long period of quiescence, the volcano entered an eruptive phase that continues to this day. The renewed activity in October 1999 produced major ashfall and led to the temporary evacuation of more than 25,000 inhabitants from Baños and the surrounding area Activity continued at a medium level until May 2006, when activity increased dramatically, culminating in violent eruptions on 14 July 2006 and 16 August 2006. The 16 August 2006 eruption has been the most violent since activity commenced in 1999. This eruption was accompanied by a 10 km high ash plume which spread over an area of 740 by, depositing ash and tephra to the southwest of the volcano. Several pyroclastic flows were generated that killed at least five people, and destroyed a number of hamlets and roads on the eastern and northwestern slopes of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>A further eruption and evacuation occurred on 4 December 2010. Ecuadors National Agency of Risk Control issued a "red alert", later downgraded to orange. The Ecuadorean Institute for Geophysics reported a rapid increase in seismic activity, a number of explosions and an ash cloud reaching 2 km in height. Another eruption occurred on 18 December 2012 forcing evacuation of those living on the volcanos slopes. The volcano erupted again in July 2013. On 1 February 2014, the volcano erupted again.</p><br>
<h2>First ascent</h2><br>
<p>During their seven-year-long South America expedition (1868 to 1876), the German volcanologists Alphons Stübel and Wilhelm Reiss climbed Cotopaxi (Reiss with Angel Escobar; 28 November 1872) and Tungurahua (Stübel with Eusebio Rodríguez; 9 February 1873).</p><br>
<p>Drama  is a city and municipality in northeastern Greece in Makedonia. Drama is the capital of the regional unit of Drama which is part of the East Macedonia and Thrace region. The town  is the economic center of the municipality , which in turn comprises 60 percent of the regional unit&#39;s population. The next largest communities in the municipality are Choristi , Χiropótamos , Kallífytos , Kalós Agrós , and Koudoúnia .</p><br>
<p>Built at the foot of mount Falakro, in a verdant area with abundant water sources, Drama has been an integral part of the Hellenic world since the classical era; under the Byzantine Empire, Drama was a fortified city with a castle and rose to great prosperity under the Komnenoi as a commercial and military junction.</p><br>
<p>In the modern era, tobacco production and trade, the operation of the railway (1895) and improvement of the road network towards the port of Kavala, led to an increase in the population of the city and to the enhancement of commercial activity.</p><br>
<p>Drama hosts the "Eleftheria", cultural events in commemoration of the city&#39;s liberation, at the end of June or beginning of July, and an annual film festival in September.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological finds show that in the area of the modern city there used to be an ancient Greek settlement named Dyrama (Greek: Δύραμα) or alternatively Hydrama (Greek: Ύδραμα), both meaning "rich in water". Some scholars associate Drama with the ancient Greek Drabescus (Δράβησκος). Hydrama was notable as the place of worship for many Gods of classical Greek mythology, especially Apollo and Artemis. With the passage of time Dyrama became Drama. In the South Slavic languages, the city is known as Драма which is itself a transliteration of the Greek name.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The municipality Drama was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 2 former municipalities, that became municipal units (constituent communities in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Drama (Choristi, Drama, Kallifytos, Kalos Agros, Koudounia, Livadero, Makryplagio, Mavrovatos, Mikrochori, Monastiraki, Mylopotamos, Nikotsaras, Xiropotamos)</p><br>
<p>Sidironero (Sidironero, Skaloti)</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 840.103 km, the municipal unit 488.830 km.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Drabescus was part of the Roman and Byzantine Empires along with the rest of Greece. The region was conquered by Ottoman Empire in 1371. In the 19th century, the town became centre of the Sanjak of Drama. In 1912 during the First Balkan War, Drama was taken from the Ottomans by Bulgarian troops. Subsequently, in 1913 as a result of the Treaty of Bucharest, following the Second Balkan War, it was incorporated into Greece along with the rest of eastern Macedonia.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>Drama was occupied by Bulgarian troops in the wake of the German invasion of Greece, from 1941 to 1944 during World War II.</p><br>
<p>On 29 September 1941, in response to local communist guerrilla attacks against the Bulgarians in the villages of Drama, the Bulgarian occupation forces applied harsh reprisals in Drama, Doxato and several villages like Choristi, Kyrgia, Koudounia and Prosotsani.</p><br>
<p>On 4 March 1943, after midnight, the Bulgarian military authorities rounded up the Jewish population across their zone of occupation in eastern Macedonia and Thrace. The 4,000-strong community, including 589 Jews from Drama, was carried by train into Bulgarian territory and assembled in the tobacco warehouses that were empty this time of year. From there, the Jews were taken by train to the extermination camp of Treblinka. No one of the 589 Jews from Drama came back.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>In the recent past the economy of the Drama area relied heavily on the local paper and textile-clothing industries. However, these industries have either closed down or moved across the border to Bulgaria, because of the low demands of the Bulgarian workforce, with a negative impact on the local economy and employment. The situation worsened after 2007, when Bulgaria was admitted to the EU, and local Greek businessmen moved to expand their operations there. Other sources of revenue include agriculture, consisting mainly of tobacco plantations, small-scale mining (particularly of marble) and forestry. Recently, there have been efforts to exploit the rich local natural environment and to develop ecotourism.</p><br>
<p>There is a modern ski resort on Mount Falakro. Drama also hosts an annual short film festival.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Since 1978, Drama hosts Drama International Short Film Festival. In 1987, the festival was recognized nationally. It which was included in 1996 in the National Cultural Network of Cities by the Greek Ministry of Culture. In 1995 it added the International competition section where short films from all over the world visiting the city every year.</p><br>
<h3>Museums</h3><br>
<h4>Archaeological Museum</h4><br>
<p>The Archaeological Museum of Drama covers human presence in the regional unit of Drama from the mid Paleolithic Period (50,000 years before present) with traces of life from Paleolithic hunts in the caves of the source of the Angitis, up to modern times (1913).</p><br>
<p>The exhibition space consists of three main halls. In the first archaeological finds from the cave of Maara give witness to the presence of nomadic hunters in the area from the mid Palaeolithic period, while other finds show us about the life of settled farmers and animal rearers from Neolithic villages and the passage of the Copper Age in the city of Drama and the village of Sitagri. The reproduction of a Neolithic house with finds which describe the activities of Neolithic man and his daily activities is the main centre of interest for visitors of all ages.</p><br>
<p>Bust of Dionysius, found in the area of Kali Vrysi. The same hall continues the journey through time to the Iron Age and later years where the main element was the worship of Dionysius at the city of Drama itself and at Kali Vrysi and other areas of the regional unit. In the second hall architectural sculptures, pottery and coins confirm that life continued in the city and throughout the whole regional unit during early Christian, Byzantine and post-Byzantine years.</p><br>
<p>The visitor is taken through modem recent history by a photographic exhibition relating to the city of Drama, the towns of the regional unit and the mountain villages. The exhibition covers the period from the beginning of Ottoman period up to the middle of the 19th century. In the third hall which is roofed with an atrium, the visitor can admire sculptures arranged into three thematic groups. The first includes architectural sculptures dating from ancient times up to Turkish occupation. The second contains votive monuments connected with the worship of various gods in the Greco-Roman pantheon as well as local deities, with particular reference to Dionysius while the third group of sculptures focuses on funerary monuments from Hellenistic and Roman times.</p><br>
<h4>Ecclesiastical Museum</h4><br>
<p>The history of the Christian Church in Drama began during the Byzantine period and underwent difficult and troubled times. From the 14th century when the city was captured by the Ottomans until the 20th century with successive foreign occupations, the Greek Orthodox Church in Drama struggled without end, fed by the blood of many faithful, martyrs to the faith and to the Hellenic ideal and provided succor to its followers through difficult periods.</p><br>
<p>The collection of icons dating from Byzantine times to the 20th century forms the basic core of the museums exhibits. The Museum of the Cathedral of Drama, founded during the reign of the honourable Bishop Dionysius 1st, is now housed in a recently restored five-storey wing of the Bishop of Dramas palace on Venizelou St. In the spacious and well-attended halls, ecclesiastical treasures of priceless spiritual and artistic value are on exhibition. The Icons of the Virgin Ηοdegetria and the Blessing Lord from the 13th century, icons from the 17th century and particularly from the 19th century decorate and sanctify the place. Moreover, the episcopal canonicals, holy vessels and their covers, many from the 19th century, relics of Chrysostomos of Drama and Smyrni, constitute the most important exhibits in the museum.</p><br>
<p>Many of the exhibits are relics brought by refugees from Asia Minor and Pontus in 1922 from the churches of their ancient homes to their new home, valuable reminders of who they were and where they came from. Organized groups of pilgrims and visitors to the city are advised to contact the office of the Diocese of Drama before visiting the museum to make arrangements.</p><br>
<h4>Other museums</h4><br>
<p>Folklore Museum (Drama)</p><br>
<h3>Sport</h3><br>
<p>Drama hosts many sport teams in various sports. The most famous and most popular is Doxa Dramas, founded in 1918. Other successful clubs with presence in Greek national divisions are KAOD (basketball club), Pandramaikos FC, Drama 1986 and Amazones Dramas.</p><br>
<h3>Notable people</h3><br>
<p>Tabanıyassı Mehmed Pasha- Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, (died 1637)</p><br>
<p>Mahmud Dramali Pasha (1780–1822) - Ottoman General during the Greek Independence War</p><br>
<p>(1900–1992), classical Turkish music composer - singer</p><br>
<p>Koulis Stoligkas (1910–1984), actor</p><br>
<p>Michael Athans (b. 1937), electrical engineer, retired MIT professor</p><br>
<p>Basilis C. Xanthopoulos (1951–1990), theoretical physicist</p><br>
<p>Nikos Sergianopoulos (1952–2008), television and stage actor</p><br>
<p>Tania Tsanaklidou,(b. 1952) singer</p><br>
<p>Petros Gaitanos (b. 1967), singer</p><br>
<p>Natassa Theodoridou, (b. 1970), singer</p><br>
<p>Paraskevas Antzas (b. 1977), footballer</p><br>
<p>Vassiliki Pavlidou (b. 1977), astrophysicist</p><br>
<p>Giannis Papazisis (b. 1978), actor</p><br>
<p>Konstantinos Douvalidis (b. 1987), hurdler</p><br>
<p>Dimitris Siovas (b. 1988), footballer</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Fetfatzidis (b. 1990), footballer</p><br>
<p>Alexis Koubroglou (b. 1991), footballer</p><br>
<p>Anna Korakaki (b. 1996), shooter, Gold medalist Women&#39;s 25m pistol, bronze medalist in the 10m air pistol at the 2016 Summer Olympics</p><br>
<p>Sérres  is a city in Macedonia, Greece, capital of the Serres regional unit and second largest city in the region of Central Macedonia, after Thessaloniki. Serres is one of the administrative and economic centers of Northern Greece. The city is situated in a fertile plain at an elevation of about 70 m, some 24 km northeast of the Strymon river and 69 km north-east of Thessaloniki, respectively. Serres&#39; official municipal population was 76,817 in 2011 with the total number of people living in the city and its immediate surroundings estimated at around 100,000. The city is home to the Department of Physical Education and Sport Science of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki  and the Technological Educational Institute of Central Macedonia , composed of the School of Technological Applications, the School of Management and Finance and the School of Graphic Arts and Design, with at least 10,000 Greek and international students.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>The Ancient Greek historian Herodotus mentions the city as Siris (Σίρις) in the 5th century BC. Theopompus refers to the city as Sirra (Σίρρα). Later, it is mentioned as Sirae, in the plural, by the Roman historian Livy. Since then the name of the city has remained plural and by the 5th century AD it was already in the contemporary form as Serrae or Sérrai (Σέρραι), which remained the Katharevousa form for the name till modern times. In the local Greek dialect, the city is known as "ta Serras" (τα Σέρρας), which is actually a corruption of the plural Accusative "tas Serras" (τάς Σέρρας) of the archaic form "ai Serrai" (αι Σέρραι). Τhe oldest mention of this form is attested in a document of the Docheiariou Monastery in Mount Athos from 1383, while there are many other such references in documents from the 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. It was known as Serez or Siroz in Turkish. In the Slavic languages, the city is known as Ser in Serbian, while in Bulgarian it is known as Syar (Сяр) or Ser.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>Although the earliest mention of Serres (as Siris) is dating in the 5th century BC (Herodotus), the city was founded long before the Trojan War, probably at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The ancient city was built on a high and steep hill (known as "Koulas") just north of Serres. It held a very strategic position, since it controlled a land road, which following the valley of the river Strymon led from the shores of Strymonian Gulf to the Danubian countries.</p><br>
<p>The most ancient known inhabitants of the area were the Bryges (Phrygians) and Strymonians; afterwards (since 1100 BC) were Siriopaiones and finally (from the early 5th century BC until the end of antiquity) the Thracian tribe of Odomantes. These populations mainly engaged in agriculture and cattle-raising especially worshiped the Sun, the deified river Strymon and later the "Thracian horseman".</p><br>
<p>The colony of Serraepolis was founded in Cilicia by people from Serres.</p><br>
<h3>Roman Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>In Roman antiquity (168 BC – 315 AD) the city is mentioned in sources under the name Sirra (Greek: Σίρρα) and in inscriptions as Sirraion polis (Greek: Σιρραίων πόλις). It was an important city of the Roman province of Macedonia, with the status of a civitas stipendiaria. It flourished especially during the imperial period thanks to the Pax Romana. Then, during the great crisis of the Roman Empire (235–284 AD), the city declined and only in the times of Diocletian, with its reforms (Tetrarchic system), returned to prosperity.</p><br>
<p>As regards the urban structure it featured, like all Greek cities (polis), a market ("agora"), parliament ("bouleuterio"), theater, gymnasium and temples. As we know from epigraphic evidence, the local government was also based on the known Greek institutions, which were the parliament (boule), the municipality ("demos") and the archons (politarchai, agoranomoi, gymnasiarchai, high priests etc.). It was also the seat of a federation of five cities ("Pentapolis") and actively participated in the provincial life and organization of the Macedonians; while many residents, mostly members of the local aristocracy, had received the right of Roman citizenship and were promoted to senior provincial dignities.</p><br>
<p>Sirra as a city-state (polis), apart from the usual Greek institutions, held also its own territory (chora), which occupied the area of the former province of Serres. The organization of its territory was based on villages (komai, sing. kome), whose many sites have been found in various places near modern villages, such as Lefkonas, Oreini, Ano Vrontou, Neo Souli, Agio Pnevma, Chryso, Paralimnio etc. Within the limits of its territory have also discovered traces of marble quarries and iron mines, which indicate systematic exploitation of the existing mineral wealth in the imperial period (1st to 3rd century AD).</p><br>
<p>In terms of population, except the most numerous Greek element, are recognized some population substrates even from prehistoric times. Concerning the society, the main feature was its distinction in upper (rich) and lower (poor) social strata (honestiores and humiliores in Latin). Finally, concerning the cults of the residents, except the known panhellenic cults (Dionysus, Zeus, Dioscuri, Apollo, Asclepius, Artemis and Isis), are evidenced and some local and Thracian cults as the Thracian horseman (or "Hero").</p><br>
<p>Many inscriptions of Roman (imperial) times have been found in the city (and to the early 1960s in the surrounding area). From these inscriptions (almost all written in Greek and only three in Latin), the eight are votive or honorific and all other on epitaph reliefs or steles.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages</h3><br>
<p>The first attested bishop of the city is recorded as participating in the Second Council of Ephesus in 449.</p><br>
<p>In the early Middle Ages, Serres became the site of a major fortress built by the Byzantine Empire to guard the empire&#39;s northern frontier and the strategic Rupel Pass.</p><br>
<p>The city was uneventful until the 10th century, being in the heartland of the Byzantine Greek world, until it was pillaged and briefly occupied by the Bulgarians. In 1185, the environs of the city were pillaged by a Norman invasion, and in the Battle of Serres in 1195/6 the Byzantines were defeated by the rebellious Bulgarian ruler Ivan Asen I. After the Fourth Crusade, Boniface of Montferrat took over the city, but shortly after Kaloyan of Bulgaria defeated the Crusaders of the Latin Empire and briefly annexed the city until it was retaken by the Crusaders in the early 1230s. According to George Akropolites, Kaloyan almost destroyed the city, reducing it from a sizeable city to a small settlement, centred around the fortified citadel, while the lower town was protected by a weak stone wall.</p><br>
<p>The city returned to Byzantine rule in 1246, when it was captured by the Nicaean Empire. By the 14th century, the city had regained its former size and prosperity, so that Nikephoros Gregoras called it a "large and marvelous" city. Taking advantage of the Byzantine civil war of 1341–47, the Serbs besieged and took the city on 25 September 1345. It became the capital of Stefan Dušans Serbian Empire, but after Dušans death in 1355 his realm fell into feudal anarchy, and Serres became a separate principality, initially under Dušan&#39;s Empress-dowager Helena and after 1365 by the Despot Jovan Uglješa. Jovan Uglješa maintained close political and cultural ties to the Byzantine court in Constantinople, and the Greek element rose again to prominence: local Greeks played a major role in his administration, which was carried out in Greek. After the 1371 Battle of Maritsa, the Byzantines under Manuel II Palaiologos (then governor of Thessalonica) retook Serres.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>Serres fell to the Ottoman Empire on 19 September 1383—although the Ottoman sources give several earlier and contradictory dates, the date is securely established by multiple Greek sources. The city (Siroz in Turkish) and the surrounding region became a fief of Evrenos Beg, who brought in Yörük settlers from Sarukhan. Althougn never rising to particular prominence within the Ottoman Empire, Serres became also the site of a mint from 1413/14 on. The rebel Sheikh Bedreddin was executed in the city.</p><br>
<p>In the early 16th century, Serres was visited by the French traveller Pierre Belon, who reported that the town was mainly inhabited by Greeks alongside German and Sephardi communities, while the people in the surrounding country spoke Greek and Bulgarian. In the aftermath of the Christian victory at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, Turkish reprisals were directed at the Greek population, who had shown sympathy with the Western success and had sporadically risen up across Greece. The metropolitan cathedral of Serres was looted along with seven other churches, while land and land titles owned by the Monastery of St John the Baptist were confiscated.</p><br>
<p>In the 18th and early 19th centuries, Serres was an autonomous beylik under a succession of derebeys, within the Sanjak of Salonica. At the end of the 18th century, Serres was a cotton producing area, exporting 50,000 balls of cotton to Germany, France, Venice and Livorno. The metropolitan bishop Gabriel founded in 1735 the Greek School of Serres which he directed until 1745. The school was maintained by donations from wealthy Greek merchants, among them Ioannes Constas from Vienna with 10,800 florins and the banker and tragic leader of the Greek War of Independence in Macedonia Emmanouel Pappas, who donated 1,000 Turkish silver coins. Minas Minoides taught philosophy and grammar in 1815–19. The school operated also in the period of the Greek War of Independence under Argyrios Paparizou from Siatista.</p><br>
<p>Serres became a regular province c. 1846 as the Sanjak of Siroz of the Salonica Eyalet (later Salonica Vilayet).</p><br>
<h3>Modern period</h3><br>
<p>In the early 20th century, the city became a focus of anti-Ottoman unrest, which resulted in the Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising of 1903. A Bulgarian army, which was commanded by general Georgi Todorov captured Serres during the First Balkan War on November 6, 1912, but was forced to withdraw by Greek forces commanded by the King of Greece, Constantine I, during the Second Balkan War. The first officer of the Hellenic Army to enter Serres was infantry colonel Napoleon Sotilis, head of the Seventh Greek Infantry Regiment on July 11, 1913. As the National Schism erupted in Greece during the First World War, Serres was temporarily occupied by the Central Powers after King Constantine ordered the local garrison not to resist to a token force of the Imperial German Army; eventually the city was liberated in 1917 by Greek-French Entente forces under the Venizelos government.</p><br>
<p>During the Second World War, after the conquest of mainland Greece by Nazi Germany in April 1941 (which was followed by the conquest of Crete in June), Serres was assigned by the Nazis to their Bulgarian allies (along with the rest of East Macedonia and Thrace and the island of Thasos), who occupied the city until the Allied liberation of Greece in 1944. In 1943, Serres&#39; Jewish population was deported by the Gestapo to the Treblinka death camp and exterminated. There was a significant resistance movement in the city during the occupation, led by the left-wing National Liberation Front (EAM).</p><br>
<p>In the postwar years, the city&#39;s population grew substantially, and there was also a significant rise in the standard of living. The long-serving conservative Greek Prime Minister Constantine Karamanlis (in office from 1955 to 1963 and again from 1974 to 1980) was a native of Serres, and as a result its people could count on the support of the central Greek government in Athens. However, the villages in the plains around the city were not so lucky; the low prices of agricultural products led many people of these villages to emigrate, mostly to the United States and West Germany.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The present Serres municipality was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 6 former municipalities, that became municipal units of the new municipality:</p><br>
<p>Ano Vrontou</p><br>
<p>Kapetan Mitrousi</p><br>
<p>Lefkonas</p><br>
<p>Oreini</p><br>
<p>Serres</p><br>
<p>Skoutari</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 600.479 km, the municipal unit 252.973 km.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Serres is the capital of a primarily agricultural district and is an important trade centre for tobacco, grain, and livestock. Following the development of a government-sponsored manufacturing area in the late 20th century, it has also become a centre for the production of textiles and other manufactured items.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks</h2><br>
<p>Serres Public Regional Theatre</p><br>
<p>Archaeological Museum of Serres</p><br>
<p>Serres Ecclesiastical Museum</p><br>
<p>Sarakatsani Folklore Museum</p><br>
<p>Mehmet Bey Mosque</p><br>
<p>Serres Circuit racing track</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Late Ottoman author Omer Seyfeddin set his fictional work White Tulip (Beyaz Lale) describing events during the First Balkan War in the town.</p><br>
<h2>Cuisine</h2><br>
<p>Probably the most well-known food from Serres is Bougatsa. Additionally, gyros and souvlaki are standard forms of Greek cuisine served in many restaurants and taverns. One delicacy that is truly unique to the region is akanes, which is a type of gourmet candy delight prepared according to a secret recipe since the beginning of the 20th century by the Roumbos family. Allegedly, Aristeidis Roumbos, the confectioner who invented this candy, disclosed the recipe to one of his loyal trainees, who then proceeded to establish a rival akanes business. Nevertheless, the Roumbos family, to this day, continues to produce this delight in their quaint workshop, which is reminiscent of life in the 1950s.</p><br>
<h2>Neighborhoods</h2><br>
<p>Katakonozi is one of the most prosperous neighborhoods of the city, and it is currently experiencing a real estate boom.</p><br>
<p>Kamenikia is one historic western neighbohood of the city, well known from the hero Kapetan Mitrousis (Dimitris Gogolakis).</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Gazi Husrev-beg (1480–1541), bey in the Ottoman Empire</p><br>
<p>Halil Rifat Pasha, 19th-century Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire</p><br>
<p>Hoca Ibrahim Pasha, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire in 1713</p><br>
<p>Emmanouel Pappas, leader of the Greek War of Independence in Macedonia</p><br>
<p>Konstantinos Karamanlis (8 March 1907 – 23 April 1998), leader of ERE (Ethniki Rizospastike Enosis) and founder of New Democracy party, four times Prime Minister of Greece, the 3rd and 5th President of the Third Hellenic Republic.</p><br>
<p>Efstathios Tavlaridis, football player</p><br>
<p>Giorgos Kapoutzidis (1972), scriptwriter and actor</p><br>
<p>Glykeria, singer</p><br>
<p>Stratos Dionysiou (1935–1990), singer</p><br>
<p>Angelos Charisteas, football player</p><br>
<p>Maria Houkli, journalist</p><br>
<h2>Higher education</h2><br>
<p>In the city of Serres there is the Technological Educational Institution (TEI) of Central Macedonia. It has more than 14.000 bachelor and master students, also three faculties and even more departments. In autumn 2012 there operated (for first time) two master programmes in English (MBA, MSc) and in 2013 a third one was added (MSc).</p><br>
<p>There is also a Department of Physical Education and Sport Science of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki that operates in the city of Serres, offering bachelors and masters degrees. (in Greek)</p><br>
<p>In addition, in the Vocational Training Institute (Greek: Ι.Ε.Κ.) of Serres, various specialisations are being taught in programmes that last for up to two years of study.</p><br>
<h2>Sporting teams</h2><br>
<p>Serres hosts the sport clubs Panserraikos, football club that plays in second national division (football league 2), Ikaroi Serron, basketball club that plays in Beta Ethniki and Ofka Serres (Omilos Filon Klassikou Athlitismou)</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns — sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Serres is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria</p><br>
<p>Fosses, France</p><br>
<p>Eilat, Israel</p><br>
<p>Nilüfer, Turkey</p><br>
<p>Larissa, Greece</p><br>
<p>Ioannina , often called Yannena  within Greece, is the capital and largest city of Epirus, an administrative region in north-western Greece. Its population is 112,486, according to 2011 census. It lies at an elevation of approximately 500 m above sea level, on the western shore of lake Pamvotis . It is the capital of Ioannina regional unit and the region of Epirus. Ioannina is located 450 km northwest of Athens, 290 km southwest of Thessaloniki and 80 km east of the port of Igoumenitsa in the Ionian Sea.</p><br>
<p>The city&#39;s foundation has traditionally been ascribed to the Byzantine Emperor Justinian in the 6th century AD, but modern archaeological research has uncovered evidence of Hellenistic origins. Ioannina flourished in the late Byzantine period (13th–15th centuries). Part of the Despotate of Epirus following the Fourth Crusade, many wealthy Byzantine families fled there following the sack of Constantinople, and the city experienced great prosperity and considerable autonomy, despite the political turmoils. It surrendered to the Ottomans in 1430. Between 1430 and 1868 the city was the administrative center of the Pashalik of Yanina. In the period between the 18th and 19th centuries, the city was a major center of the modern Greek Enlightenment. Ioannina joined Greece in 1913 following the Balkan Wars.</p><br>
<p>The city has both a General and a University Hospital, and is the seat of the University of Ioannina (situated 5 km south of the city, with 17 departments and 20,000 students) as well as several departments of the Τechnological Educational Institute of Epirus, the headquarters of which are located in Arta.</p><br>
<p>The city&#39;s emblem consists of the portrait of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian crowned by a stylized depiction of the nearby ancient theater of Dodona.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The city&#39;s formal name, Ioannina, is probably a corruption of Agioannina or Agioanneia, "place of St. John", and is said to be linked to the establishment of a monastery dedicated to Saint John the Baptist, around which the later settlement (in the area of the current Ioannina Castle) grew.</p><br>
<p>There are two name forms in Greek, Ioannina being the formal and historical name, while the colloquial and more commonly used Υannena or Υannina (Γιάννενα, Γιάννινα) represents the vernacular tradition of Demotic Greek. The demotic form also corresponds to those in the neighbouring languages (e.g. Janina or Janinë, Ianina, Enina, Yanya).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity and early Middle Ages</h3><br>
<p>The first indications of human presence in Ioannina basin are dated back to the Paleolithic period (20,000 years ago) as testified by findings in the cavern of Kastritsa. During classical antiquity the basin was inhabited by the Molossians and four of their settlements have been identified there. Despite the extensive destruction suffered in Molossia during the Roman conquest of 167 BC, settlement continued in the basin albeit no longer in an urban pattern.</p><br>
<p>The exact time of Ioannina&#39;s foundation is unknown, but it is commonly identified with an unnamed new, "well-fortified" city, recorded by the historian Procopius (De Aedificiis, IV.1.39–42) as having been built by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I for the inhabitants of ancient Euroia. This view is not supported, however, by any concrete archaeological evidence. Early 21st-century excavations have brought to light fortifications dating to the Hellenistic period (4th–3rd centuries BC), the course of which was largely followed by later reconstruction of the fortress in the Byzantine and Ottoman periods. The identification of the site with one of the ancient cities of Epirus has not yet been possible.</p><br>
<p>It is not until 879 that the name Ioannina appears for the first time, in the acts of the Fourth Council of Constantinople, which refer to one Zacharias, Bishop of Ioannine, a suffragan of Naupaktos. After the Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria, in 1020 Emperor Basil II subordinated the local bishopric to the Archbishopric of Ohrid. The Greek archaeologist K. Tsoures dated the Byzantine city walls and the northeastern citadel of the Ioannina Castle to the 10th century, with additions in the late 11th century, including the south-eastern citadel, traditionally ascribed to the short-lived occupation of the city by the Normans under the leadership of Bohemond of Taranto in 1082. In a chrysobull to the Venetians in 1198, the city is listed as part of its own province (provincia Joanninorum or Joaninon). In the treaty of partition of the Byzantine lands after the Fourth Crusade, Ioannina was promised to the Venetians, but in the event, it became part of the new state of Epirus, founded by Michael I Komnenos Doukas.</p><br>
<h3>Late Middle Ages (1204–1430)</h3><br>
<p>Under Michael I, the city was enlarged and fortified anew. Michael I settled there refugee noble Byzantine families who fled Constantinople and other parts of the Empire that fell to the Latins of the Fourth Crusade. Despite frictions with local inhabitants who tried in 1232 to expel the refugees, the latter were eventually successfully settled and Ioannina gained in both population and economic and political importance. The presence of Varangians is attested in the city in 1220, and in 1225, a thema of Ioannina is mentioned. The city is often mentioned in the writings of the contemporary churchmen John Apokaukos and Demetrios Chomatenos. In the aftermath of the Battle of Pelagonia in 1259, much of Epirus, including the capital, Arta, was occupied by the Empire of Nicaea, and Ioannina was placed under siege. Soon, however, the Epirote ruler Michael II Komnenos Doukas, aided by his younger son John I Doukas, managed to recover Arta and relieve Ioannina, evicting the Nicaeans from Epirus. In or, John I Doukas, now ruler of Thessaly, launched a raid against the city and its environs, in retaliation for the abduction of his son Michael, who was sent as a hostage to Constantinople, by his half-brother Nikephoros, ruler of Epirus. The city was besieged unsuccessfully by an army from the restored Byzantine Empire, most likely in the summer or autumn of 1292. Following the assassination of the last native ruler, Thomas I Komnenos Doukas by his nephew, Nicholas Orsini, in 1318, the city refused to accept the latter and turned to the Byzantines for assistance. On this occasion, Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos elevated the city to a metropolitan bishopric, and in 1319 Andronikos II issued a chrysobull conceding wide-ranging autonomy and various privileges and exemptions on its inhabitants. A Jewish community is also attested in the city in 1319. In the Epirote revolt of 1337–1338 against Byzantine rule, the city remained loyal to Emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos.</p><br>
<p>In, Ioannina fell to the Serb ruler Stephen Dushan, taking advantage of the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347. The city remained part of the new Serbian Empire until Dushans death in 1355. It then passed to Dushans half-brother Simeon Uroš, but he was soon evicted by Nikephoros II Orsini. Nikephoros&#39; attempt to restore the Epirote state failed disastrously in the Battle of Achelous against the Albanian tribes that had invaded the region. Simeon Uroš then took again control of Epirus and Thessaly, ruling as "emperor of the Serbs and Greeks". Following Achelous, however, much of southern Epirus, including Arta, was overrun and settled by the Albanians; Ioannina escaped this fate, and served as a place of refuge for many Greeks of the region of Vagenetia. In 1366/67, responding to the pleas for aid of the Ioannites, Simeon Uroš appointed his son-in-law Thomas II Preljubović as the new overlord of Ioannina. Thomas proved a tyrannical ruler, disrespecting the privileges of the citizens, confiscating Church property in favour of his Serb followers and driving the Metropolitan Sebastianos to exile; nevertheless, he was able to repel successive attempts by the Albanian chieftains Peter Losha and John Bua Spata to capture the city, most notably the great surprise attack of 1379, whose failure the Ioannites attributed to intervention by their patron, Saint Michael.</p><br>
<p>In 1382, the Ottomans appeared in Epirus, and Thomas Preljubović lost no time in securing their aid against the Albanians. After his murder in December 1384, the citizens of Ioannina offered their city to Esau de Buondelmonti, who married Thomas widow, Maria. Esau took care to recall those exiled under Thomas, and restore the properties confiscated by him. In 1389, Ioannina was besieged by John Bua Spata, and only with the aid of an Ottoman army under a certain Melkoutzes was Esau able to repel the Albanians. Despite the ongoing Ottoman expansion and the conflicts between Turks and Albanians in the vicinity of Ioannina, Esau managed to secure a period of peace for the city, especially following his second marriage to Spatas daughter Irene in. From this point on Esau and the Spatas were allied, even undertaking a common attack on John Zenevisi in 1399. Following Esaus death in 1411, the Ioannites turned against his unpopular widow, Eudocia Balšić, and invited the Count palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos, Carlo I Tocco, who had already been expanding his domains into Epirus for the last decade, as their new ruler. Despite early reverses, by 1416 Carlo I Tocco had managed to capture Arta as well, thereby reuniting the core of the old Epirote realm, and received recognition from both the Ottomans and the Byzantine emperor. Ioannina became the summer capital of the Tocco domains, and Carlo I died there in July 1429. His oldest bastard son, Ercole, called on the Ottomans for aid against the legitimate heir, Carlo II Tocco. In 1430 an Ottoman army, fresh from the capture of Thessalonica, appeared before Ioannina, and the city surrendered soon after, after its commander, Sinan Pasha, promised to spare the city and respect its autonomy.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period (1430–1913)</h3><br>
<p>Under Ottoman rule, Ioannina remained an administrative centre, as the seat of the Sanjak of Ioannina, and experienced a period of relative stability and prosperity. The first Ottoman tax registers for the city dates to 1564, and records 50 Muslim households and 1,250 Christian ones; another register from 15 years later mentions Jews as well.</p><br>
<p>In 1611 the city suffered a serious setback as a result of a peasant revolt led by Dionysius the Philosopher, the Metropolitan of Larissa. The Greek inhabitants of the city were unaware of the intent of the fighting as previous successes of Dionysius had depended on the element of surprise. Much confusion ensued as Turks and Christians ended up indiscriminately fighting friend and foe alike. The revolt ended in the abolition of all privileges granted to the Christian inhabitants, who were driven away from the castle area and had to settle around it. From then onwards, Turks and Jews were to be established in the castle area. The School of the Despots at the Church of the Taxiarchs, that had been operating since 1204, was closed. Aslan Pasha also destroyed the monastery of St. John the Baptist within the city walls, killed the monks and in 1618 erected in its place the Aslan Pasha Mosque, today housing the Municipal Ethnographic Museum of Ioannina. The Ottoman reprisals in the wake of the revolt included the confiscation of many timars previously granted to Christian sipahis; this began a wave of conversions to Islam by the local gentry, who became the so-called Tourkoyanniotes (Τoυρκογιαννιώτες). The Ottoman traveller Evliya Çelebi, who visited the city in, counted 37 quarters, of which 18 Muslim, 14 Christian, 4 Jewish and 1 Gypsy. He estimated the population at 4,000 hearths.</p><br>
<h4>Center of Greek Enlightenment (17th–18th centuries)</h4><br>
<p>Despite the repression and conversions in the 17th century, and the prominence of the Muslim population in the city&#39;s affairs, Ioannina retained its Christian majority throughout Ottoman rule, and the Greek language retained a dominant position; Turkish was spoken by the Ottoman officials and the garrison, and the Albanian inhabitants used Albanian, but the lingua franca and native language of most inhabitants was Greek, including among the Tourkoyanniotes, and was sometimes used by the Ottoman authorities themselves.</p><br>
<p>The city also soon recovered from the financial effects of the revolt. In the late 17th century Ioannina was a thriving city with respect to population and commercial activity. Evliya Çelebi mentions the presence of 1,900 shops and workshops. The great economic prosperity of the city was followed by remarkable cultural activity. During the 17th and 18th centuries, many important schools were established. Its inhabitants continued their commercial and handicraft activities which allowed them to trade with important European commercial centers, such as Venice and Livorno, where merchants from Ioannina established commercial and banking houses. The Ioannite diaspora was also culturally active: Nikolaos Glykys (in 1670), Nikolaos Sarros (in 1687) and Dimitrios Theodosiou (in 1755) established private printing presses in Venice, responsible for over 1,600 editions of books for circulation in the Ottoman-ruled Greek lands, and Ioannina was the centre through which these books were channeled into Greece. These were significant historical, theological as well as scientific works, including an algebra book funded by the Zosimades brothers, books for use in the schools of Ioannina such as the Arithmetica of Balanos Vasilopoulos, as well as medical books. At the same time these merchants and entrepreneurs maintained close economic and intellectual relations with their birthplace and founded charity and education establishments. These merchants were to be major national benefactors.</p><br>
<p>Thus the Epiphaniou School was founded in 1647 by a Greek merchant of Ioannite origin resident in Venice, Epiphaneios Igoumenos. The Gioumeios School was founded in 1676 by a benefaction from another wealthy Ioannite Greek from Venice, Emmanuel Goumas. It was renamed Balaneios by its rector, Balanos Vasilopoulos, in 1725. Here worked several notable personalities of the Greek Enlightenment, such as Bessarion Makris, the priests Georgios Sougdouris (1685/7–1725) and Anastasios Papavasileiou (1715–?), the monk Methodios Anthrakites, his student Ioannis Vilaras and Kosmas Balanos. The Balaneios taught philosophy, theology and mathematics. It suffered financially from the dissolution of the Republic of Venice by the French and finally stopped operation in 1820. The school&#39;s library, which hosted several manuscripts and epigrams, was also burned the same year following the capture of Ioannina by the troops the Sultan had sent against Ali Pasha. The Maroutses family, also active in Venice, founded the Maroutsaia School, which opened in 1742 and its first director Eugenios Voulgaris championed the study of the physical sciences (physics and chemistry) as well as philosophy and Greek. The Maroutsaia also suffered after the fall of Venice and closed in 1797 to be reopened as the Kaplaneios School thanks to a benefaction from an Ioannite living in Russia, Zoes Kaplanes. Its schoolmaster, Athanasios Psalidas had been a student of Methodios Anthrakites and had also studied in Vienna and in Russia. Psalidas established an important library of thousands of volumes in several languages and laboratories for the study of experimental physics and chemistry that aroused the interest and suspicion of Ali Pasha. The Kaplaneios was burned down along with most of the rest of the city after the entry of the Sultan’s armies in 1820. These schools took over the long tradition of the Byzantine era, giving a significant boost to the Greek Enlightenment. Neophytos Doukas, a famous Epirote scholar wrote, with a little exaggeration:</p><br>
<p>During the 18th century, every author of the Greek world, was either from Ioannina or was a graduate of one of the city&#39;s schools.</p><br>
<h4>Ali Pasha's rule (1789–1822)</h4><br>
<p>In 1789 the city became the center of the territory ruled by Ali Pasha, an area that included the entire northwestern part of Greece, southern parts of Albania, Thessaly as well as parts of Euboea and the Peloponnese. The Ottoman-Albanian lord Ali Pasha was one of the most influential personalities of the region in the 18th and 19th centuries. Born in Tepelenë, he maintained diplomatic relations with the most important European leaders of the time and his court became a point of attraction for many of those restless minds who would become major figures of the Greek Revolution (Georgios Karaiskakis, Odysseas Androutsos, Markos Botsaris and others). Although during this time Ali Pasha committed a number of atrocities against the Greek population of Ioannina, culminating in the sewing up of local women in sacks and drowning them in the nearby lake, this period of his rule coincides with the greatest economic and intellectual prosperity of the city. As a couplet has it "The city was first in arms, money and letters".</p><br>
<p>When the French scholar François Pouqueville visited the city during the early years of the 19th century, he counted 3,200 homes (2,000 Christian, 1,000 Muslim, 200 Jewish). The efforts of Ali Pasha to break away from the Sublime Porte alarmed the Ottoman government, and in 1820 (the year before the Greek War of Independence began) he was declared guilty of treason and Ioannina was besieged by Turkish troops. Ali Pasha was assassinated in 1822 in the monastery of St Panteleimon on the island of the lake, where he took refuge while waiting to be pardoned by Sultan Mahmud II.</p><br>
<p>The Zosimaia was the first significant educational foundation established after the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence (1828). It was financed by a benefaction from the Zosimas brothers and began operating in 1828 and fully probably from 1833. It was a School of Liberal Arts (Greek, Philosophy and Foreign Languages). The Zosimaia was badly damaged in an air raid by Italian planes in 1940 and was rebuilt on a new more spacious location with donations from Ioanniotes after 1955. The mansion of Angeliki Papazoglou became the Papazogleios school for girls as an endowment following her death; it operated until 1905. Today it is a public school.</p><br>
<h4>Last Ottoman century (1822–1913)</h4><br>
<p>In 1869, a great part of Ioannina was destroyed by fire. The marketplace was soon reconstructed according to the plans of the German architect Holz, thanks to the personal interest of Ahmet Rashim Pasha, the local governor. Communities of people from Ioannina living abroad were active in financing the construction of most of the city&#39;s churches (the Cathedral, St. Nicholas of the Agora, St. Marina, Archimandrio etc.), schools and other elegant buildings of charitable establishments. The first bank of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman Bank, opened its first branch in Greece in Ioannina, which shows the power of the city in world trade in the 19th century. During the spring of 1877, Albanian leaders organized a congress in the city regarding decisions of the Constantinople Conference and sent a memorandum to the Ottoman government demanding, among other things, the establishment of Albanian language schools. In May 1877 various Muslim Albanians of the Vilayet formed in Ioannina a committee which aimed at defending Albanian rights, but it was inactive in general. On the other hand, the Greek population of the Ioannina region authorized a committee in order to present to European governments their wish for union with Greece; Dimitrios Chasiotis, a notable member of this committee, published a memorandum in Paris in 1879.</p><br>
<p>According to the Ottoman censuses of 1881/1893, the city and its environs (the central kaza of the Sanjak of Ioannina), had a population comprising 4,759 Muslims, 77,258 Greek Orthodox (including both Greek and Albanian speakers), 3,334 Jews and 207 of foreign nationality. While a number of Turkish-language schools were established at the time, Greek-language education retained its prominent position. Even the city&#39;s prominent Muslim families preferred to send their children to well-established Greek institutions, notably the Zosimaia. As a result, the dominance of the Greek language in the city continued: the minutes of the city council were kept in Greek, and the official newspaper, Vilayet, established in 1868, was bilingual in Turkish and Greek.</p><br>
<h3>Modern period (since 1913)</h3><br>
<p>Ioannina was incorporated into the Greek state on 21 February 1913 after the Battle of Bizani in the First Balkan War. The day the city came under the control of the Greek forces, aviator Christos Adamidis, a native of the city, landed his Maurice Farman MF.7 biplane in the Town Hall square, to the adulation of an enthusiastic crowd.</p><br>
<p>After the Asia Minor Catastrophe (1922) and the subsequent population exchange, the Muslim element of the population left, and the city received Greek refugees from Asia Minor. A small Muslim community of Albanian origin continued to live in Ioannina after the exchange, which in 1940 counted 20 families and decreased to 8 individuals in 1973.</p><br>
<p>In 1940 during World War II the capture of the city became one of the major objectives of the Italian Army. Nevertheless the Greek defense in Kalpaki pushed back the invading Italians. In April 1941 Ioannina was intensively bombed by the German forces even during the negotiations that led to the capitulation of the Greek army. During the subsequent Axis occupation of Greece, the city&#39;s Jewish community was rounded up by the Germans in 1944 and mostly perished in the concentration camps.</p><br>
<p>The University of Ioannina was funded in 1970; until then, higher education faculties in the city had been part of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.</p><br>
<h2>Jewish community</h2><br>
<p>There was a Romaniote Jewish community living in Ioannina before World War II, in addition to a very small number of Sephardi. According to Rae Dalven, 1,950 Jews were living in Ioannina in April 1941. Of these, 1,870 were deported by the Nazis to concentration camps on 25 March 1944, during the final months of German occupation. Almost all of the people deported were murdered on or shortly after 11 April 1944, when the train carrying them reached Auschwitz-Birkenau. Only 181 Ioannina Jews are known to have survived the war, including 112 who survived Auschwitz and 69 who fled to join the resistance leader Napoleon Zervas and the National Republican Greek League (EDES). Approximately 164 of these survivors eventually returned to Ioannina.</p><br>
<p>Today the remaining community has shrunk to about 50 mostly elderly people. The Kehila Kedosha Yashan Synagogue remains locked, only opened for visitors on request. Emigrant Romaniotes return every summer and open the old synagogue. The last time a Bar Mitzvah (the Jewish ritual for celebrating the coming of age of a child) was held in the synagogue was in 2000, and was an exceptional event for the community. A monument dedicated to the thousands of Greek Jews who perished during the Holocaust was constructed in the city in a 13th-century Jewish cemetery. In 2003 the memorial was vandalized by unknown antisemites. The Jewish cemetery too was repeatedly vandalized in 2009. As a response to the vandalisms, citizens of the city formed an initiative for the protection of the cemetery and organized rallies.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Ioannina lies at an elevation of approximately 500 m above sea level, on the western shore of lake Pamvotis (Παμβώτις). It is located within the Ioannina municipality, and is the capital of Ioannina regional unit and the region of Epirus. Ioannina is located 450 km northwest of Athens, 290 km southwest of Thessaloniki and 80 km east of the port of Igoumenitsa in the Ionian Sea.</p><br>
<p>The municipality Ioannina has an area of 403.322 km, the municipal unit Ioannina has an area of 47.440 km, and the community Ioannina (the city proper) has an area of 17.335 km.</p><br>
<h3>Districts</h3><br>
<p>The present municipality Ioannina was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 6 former municipalities, that became municipal units (constituent communities in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Ioannina (Ioannina, Exochi, Marmara, Neochoropoulo, Stavraki)</p><br>
<p>Anatoli (Anatoli, Bafra, Neokaisareia)</p><br>
<p>Bizani (Ampeleia, Bizani, Asvestochori, Kontsika, Kosmira, Manoliasa, Pedini)</p><br>
<p>Ioannina Island (Greek: Nisos Ioanninon)</p><br>
<p>Pamvotida (Katsikas, Anatoliki, Vasiliki, Dafnoula, Drosochori, Iliokali, Kastritsa, Koutselio, Krapsi, Longades, Mouzakaioi, Platania, Platanas, Charokopi)</p><br>
<p>Perama (Perama, Amfithea, Kranoula, Krya, Kryovrysi, Ligkiades, Mazia, Perivleptos, Spothoi)</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Ioannina has a borderline humid subtropical (Cfa) and Mediterranean climate (Csa) in the Köppen climate classification, since only two summer months have less than 40 mm of rainfall, preventing it from being classified as solely humid subtropical or Mediterranean, and is tempered by its inland location and elevation. Summers are typically hot and moderately dry, while winters are wet and colder than on the coast with frequent frosts and occasional snowfall. Ioannina is the wettest city in Greece. The absolute maximum temperature ever recorded was 42.4 &deg;C, while the absolute minimum ever recorded was -13 &deg;C.</p><br>
<h2>Demography</h2><br>
<p>Population of the Municipality of Ioannina.</p><br>
<h2>Cityscape</h2><br>
<h3>Landmarks and sights</h3><br>
<h4>Isle of Lake Pamvotis</h4><br>
<p>One of the most notable attractions of Ioannina is the Ioannina Island on Lake Pamvotis. The islands official name is "Nisos Ioanninon" «Νήσος Ιωαννίνων» (Island of Ioannina). Passengers are ferried back and forth from the mainland to the island (about a 15-minute ride each way) on small motorboats which run on varying schedules, according to the season (about once every half-hour, or more, in the spring and summer, but much less frequently in the winter). Tourists can visit the monastery of Agios Panteleimon which has been converted into a museum containing information and paintings, as well as re-creations of Ali Pashas lounging and living quarters. Ali Pasha spent the last days of his life in St Panteleimon, waiting for a pardon from the Sultan. The Island Museum is not the only attraction on the island: there are many gift-shops, tavernas, churches and bakeries on the island&#39;s winding streets. Some of the people of Ioannina even choose to make the tiny island their yearlong home, with simple rowboats moored outside their homes, or in small marinas, in the event they need to get to Ioannina proper when the motorboats are not running. The island of Ioannina in Lake Pamvotis has six monasteries: the monastery of St Nicholas (Ntiliou) or Strategopoulou from the 11th century, the Monastery of St Nicholas (Spanou) or Philanthropinon from 1292, St John the Baptist (1506 AD), Eleousis (1570 AD), St Panteleimon (17th century) and of the Transfiguration of Christ (1851 AD). The monasteries of Strategopoulou and Philanthropinon functioned also as colleges, at the latter of which taught Alexios Spanos, the monks Proklos and Comnenos and the Apsarades brothers, Theophanis and Nektarios. The school continued its activities until 1758, when it was superseded by the newer collegial foundations within the city.</p><br>
<h4>Ioannina Castle</h4><br>
<p>Located in the center of the town, this was the heart of the Despotate of Epirus, and the Ottoman vilayet. The maze-like layout of the castles streets (many of which lead to dead ends) was allegedly designed to confuse pirates of old who breached the castle walls: they would get lost within the fortress, and thus be captured before escaping with their booty. The south-eastern citadel bears the name Its Kale (Ιτς Καλέ, from Turkish Iç Kale, "inner fortress"). The Fethiye Mosque is located in Its Kale. The name means Victory Mosque; it was built in 1430 on the ruins of a Byzantine church. Its final form was given by Ali Pasha in 1795. The citys Byzantine Museum is housed in a building rebuilt on the ruins of the seraglio of Ali Pasha in Its Kale, which were completely destroyed by fire in 1870. The museum opened in 1995 in order to preserve the findings of the wider region of Epirus, chronologically covering the early Christian, Byzantine and post-Byzantine period.</p><br>
<h4>Greek Orthodox churches</h4><br>
<p>The Cathedral of St Athanasius was completed in 1933. It was built on the foundations of the previous Orthodox Cathedral which was destroyed in the fires of 1820. It is a three-aisled basilica. It has become a place of pilgrimage for the martyrdrom of St George of Ioannina, an orphaned youth hanged in public by the Turks in 1838 for proclaiming his Christian faith. The churches of the Assumption of the Virgin at Perivleptos, Saint Nicholas of Kopanon and Saint Marina were rebuilt in the 1850s by funds from Nikolaos Zosimas and his brothers on the foundations of previous churches that perished in the great fire of 1820.</p><br>
<h4>Ottoman mosques</h4><br>
<p>The Fethiye Mosque is located in Its Kale. The name means Victory Mosque; it was built in 1430 on the ruins of a Byzantine church. Its final form was given by Ali Pasha in 1795. From the Ottoman past of the city, another two mosques survived. One is located within the walls of the castle, the Veli Pasha Mosque. Outside the walls there is as well as the Kaloutsiani mosque, located in the area of Kaloutsiani.</p><br>
<h4>Jewish Synagogue of Ioannina</h4><br>
<p>The Jewish Synagogue of Ioannina is located within the walls of the Castle. During the Ottoman period, the Jewish community, both Sepharadi and Romaniote, experienced a flowering. The Jews of Ioannina were an active presence in the city&#39;s life until March 1944, when the German occupation troops arrested the entire population, 1,870 strong at the time, along with Jews from Preveza, Arta and Corfu, and deported them to the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp, where most perished. Today the community consists of about 50 persons. The synagogue (7th century) lies inside the Castle of Ioannina.</p><br>
<h4>Other</h4><br>
<p>Loulis Arcade is a commercial center in which co-existed for many years the three religious groups in the city: Christians, Jews and Muslims. Initially the gallery operated as an inn and then became a commercial center. The House Hussein Matei House (=Bishop House). The building is a ruin, but can be seen from outside. Botanically, the region of Ioannina is dominated by robust, fragrant pine trees, many of which grow within the city itself, especially around the old castle, or fortress walls.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Culinary specialties</h3><br>
<p>The region of Ioannina is well known for the production of Feta cheese.</p><br>
<p>Ioannina is also widely famous for its Baklava.</p><br>
<h3>Museums and Galleries</h3><br>
<p>The National Archaeological Museum of Ioannina, Litharitsia Castle Square. Includes archaeological exhibits from four regional units of Epirus. You can see here the history of Epirus from prehistoric times through the 19th century. Notable exhibits include palaeolithic tools, finds from Dodona, bronze vessels and votive bronzes and Frankish/Byzantine capitals taken from a church of that period.</p><br>
<p>The citys Byzantine Museum is housed in a building rebuilt on the ruins of the seraglio of Ali Pasha in Its Kale, which were completely destroyed by fire in 1870. The museum opened in 1995 in order to preserve the findings of the wider region of Epirus, chronologically covering the early Christian, Byzantine and post-Byzantine period. The museums cultural center hosts musical and theatrical events, and issues periodic reports, among other activities. The collections include early Christian and Byzantine sculptures plus exhibits of the arts, ceramics, books, pictures and a valuable collection of silverware. During the summer season the museum operates Mondays 12.00-19.00 hours and other days 08.30-19.00. The museum is accessible to people with disabilities.</p><br>
<p>The Municipal Ethnographic Museum and its three departments, Greek, Ottoman Muslim and Jewish is hosted in Aslan Pasha Mosque, in the castle.</p><br>
<p>Of particular interest are the Epirote costumes on display. The Museum of Fotis Rapakousis is located in the Aslan Mosque complex. By agreement between the city and the collector, the collection has been hosted on these premises since 2000, in cooperation with the Municipal Folklore and Ethnographic Museum, housed in the Aslan Mosque. The entire collection contains 6,000 objects, grouped in four categories: weapons with their accessories, jewelry from the 18th and 19th centuries, ceramics (Islamic art pottery of Greece, Tsanak Kale) Opening hours: 9:00 to 16:00.</p><br>
<p>Near Ioannina, 10 km south of the city, lies the Pavlos Vrellis Greek History Museum, a wax museum which covers events and personalities from Greek history. Established in 1995, this second Museum of Pavlos Vrellis (died 2010) is the result of the personal work of one man.</p><br>
<p>The Municipal Art Gallery of Ioannina (Dimotiki Pinakothiki): Housed since 2000 in the Pyrsinela neoclassical building, built in 1890. Basil Pyrsinella who served as mayor of Ioannina, donated his movable and immovable property in 1958 to the municipality of Ioannina. In 1960 he created the first Regional Municipal Art Gallery in Greece. The gallery&#39;s collection displays major modern works of painters and sculptors, collected through purchases and donations from various collectors and artists. This includes about 500 works, paintings, drawings, prints, pictures and sculptures.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>The University of Ioannina (Greek: Πανεπιστήμιο Ιωαννίνων, Panepistimio Ioanninon) is a university located 5 km southwest of Ioannina, Greece. The university was founded in 1964, as a charter of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and became an independent university in 1970.</p><br>
<p>As of 2017, there is a student population of 25,000 enrolled at the university (21,900 at the undergraduate level and 3,200 at the postgraduate level) and 580 faculty members, while teaching is further supplemented by 171 Teaching Fellows and 132 Technical Laboratory staff. The university Administrative Services are staffed with 420 employees.</p><br>
<p>The University of Ioannina is one of the leading academic institutions in Greece.</p><br>
<p>The Technological Educational Institute (T.E.I.) of Epirus was founded in 1994 in the northwestern part of Greece. It is a Public Institution, completely self-governed, and belongs to the technological sector of Greek Tertiary Education. It functions under the supervision of the Minister of Education and Religious Affairs. It has its main Campus and administrative centre in Arta and Departments in Ioannina, Preveza and Igoumenitsa. In Ioannina there is the Faculty of Health & Welfare Professions of the Institute.</p><br>
<h2>Local products</h2><br>
<p>The area is also famous for its spring water Zagori, which is sold over much of Greece.</p><br>
<p>Ioannina is famous throughout Greece for its silverwork, with a plethora of shops selling silver jewelry, bronzeware and decorative items (serving trays, recreations of shields and swords, etc.).</p><br>
<p>Hookahs (ναργιλές) are sold to tourists as novelty items and vary in size from small (3 inches in height) to quite large (4-5 ft. tall). The larger sized hookahs are often purchased by Greeks and tourists alike to be used in home decor.</p><br>
<h2>Media</h2><br>
<p>Ipirotikos Agon, a locally published newspaper.</p><br>
<p>Proinos Logos, a locally published newspaper.</p><br>
<h2>Notable Ioannites</h2><br>
<p>Christos Adamidis (1885–1949), pioneer aviator and Hellenic Army General.</p><br>
<p>Methodios Anthrakites (1660–1736), scholar.</p><br>
<p>Reshid Akif Pasha, Ottoman statesman.</p><br>
<p>Michael Apsaras, 14th century Greek noble.</p><br>
<p>Markos Avgeris (1884–1973), poet.</p><br>
<p>Amalia Bakas (1897–1979), singer.</p><br>
<p>Kosmas Balanos (1731–1808), scholar.</p><br>
<p>Mehmet Esat Bülkat (1862–1952), Ottoman general.</p><br>
<p>İzzettin Çalışlar (1882–1951), officer of the Ottoman Army.</p><br>
<p>Kyra Frosini (1772–1800), socialite and heroine.</p><br>
<p>Georgios Hatzis (Pelleren) (1881–1930), author and journalist.</p><br>
<p>Dimitrios Hatzis (1913–1981), novelist.</p><br>
<p>Michael Christaris (1773–1851), scholar.</p><br>
<p>Josef Elijia (1901–1931), Jewish Greek poet.</p><br>
<p>Mit’hat Frashëri (1880–1949) politician and writer.</p><br>
<p>Nikolaos Glykys (1619–1693), merchant and book publisher.</p><br>
<p>Vasileios Goudas (1779–1845), fighter of the Greek War of Independence.</p><br>
<p>Georgios Hadjikonstas (1753–1845), benefactor.</p><br>
<p>Epifanios Igoumenos (1568–1648), scholar.</p><br>
<p>John Ioannidis (born 1965), physician and epidemiologist.</p><br>
<p>Maroutsis family, traders and benefactors.</p><br>
<p>Elisabeth Kastrisogia (1800–1863), benefactor.</p><br>
<p>Bessarion Makris (1635–1699), scholar.</p><br>
<p>Thomas II Preljubović (1346–1416), Serbian ruler of the Despotate of Epirus.</p><br>
<p>Leonidas Palaskas (1819–1880), Hellenic navy officer.</p><br>
<p>Grigorios Paliouritis (1778–1816), scholar.</p><br>
<p>Lambros Photiadis (1752–1805), scholar.</p><br>
<p>Athanasios Psalidas (1767–1829), scholar, of the main contributors of the Modern Greek Enlightenment.</p><br>
<p>Abdülhalik Renda Chairman of the Turkish National Assembly.</p><br>
<p>Dimitrios Theodosiou, book publisher.</p><br>
<p>Athanasios Tsakalov (1790–1851), one of the three founders of Filiki Eteria.</p><br>
<p>Nikolaos Sarros (1617–1697), book publisher, owner of one of the first Greek printing-houses in Venice.</p><br>
<p>Georgios Stavros (1787–1869) benefactor, founder of the National Bank of Greece.</p><br>
<p>Simon Strategopoulos 15th-century noble and governor of Ioannina.</p><br>
<p>Georgios Sougdouris (1645/7–1725), scholar.</p><br>
<p>Balanos Vasilopoulos (1694–1760), scholar.</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Vilaras (1771–1823), poet and scholar.</p><br>
<p>Hierotheos (Vlachos), theologian.</p><br>
<p>Pavlos Vrellis (1922–2010), sculptor.</p><br>
<p>Wehib Pasha (1877–1940), Ottoman general.</p><br>
<p>Zosimades brothers, benefactors, founders of the Zosimaia School.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>Ioannina is home to a major sports team called PAS Giannina. It&#39;s an inspiration for many of old as well as new supporters of the whole region of Epirus, even outside Ioannina.</p><br>
<p>Rowing is also very popular in Ioannina; the lake hosted several international events and serves as the venue for part of the annual Greek Rowing Championships.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Ioannina is served by Ioannina National Airport.</p><br>
<p>The Egnatia Odos highway, part of the E90, passes by Ioannina. It links the west coast port of Igoumenitsa with the Turkish border.</p><br>
<p>Long-distance buses (KTEL) travel daily to Athens (6–6.5 hours) and Thessaloniki (3 hours).</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns – sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Ioannina is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Pozarevac, Serbia</p><br>
<p>Ayia Napa, Cyprus</p><br>
<p>Himara, Albania</p><br>
<p>Korçë, Albania</p><br>
<p>Limassol, Cyprus</p><br>
<p>Preveza  is a town in the region of Epirus, northwestern Greece, located at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf. It is the capital of the regional unit of Preveza, which is part of the region of Epirus. The Aktio-Preveza Immersed Tunnel, the first and so far only undersea tunnel in Greece, was completed in 2002 and connects Preveza to Aktio in western Acarnania in the region of Aetolia-Acarnania. The ruins of the ancient city of Nicopolis lie 7 km north of the city.</p><br>
<h2>Origin of the name</h2><br>
<p>Despite the three different views, which have been put forward by the academic society on the origin of the name "Preveza", the most accepted view is that Preveza means Passage, and that the word reached this form from the Slavic, through the Albanian language.</p><br>
<p>The first view suggests that the name "Preveza" originates from the Slavic word prěvozъ, which means passage. This view is adopted mainly by: Max Vasmer, Diogenis Chariton, Fyodor Uspensky, Ioannis Demaratos, Peter Soustal & Johannes Koder, Alexios G. Savvides, Elias Vasilas, Nikos D. Karabelas, Demosthenis A. Donos, and others.Ioannis F. Demaratos, (in Greek), Athens, 1932, vol. 20, pp. 654-659, sv. Πρέβεζα. Max Vasmer, Berlin, 1941, p. 64, sv. Preveza. Elias Vasilas, Preveza and the origin of the word, (in Greek), newspaper Βήμα Πρεβέζης, issue 594/28.6.1954, p. 1, and issue 595/5.7.1954, pp. 1 & 2. Reproduced in his:, (in Greek), Preveza, 2012, pp. 47-52. Peter Soustal & Johannes Koder, Vienna, 1981, p. 242. Alexis G. K. Savvides, The Turkish conquest of Preveza through the Short Chronicles, in the:, (in Greek), Preveza, 1993, pp. 25-39. Nikos D. Karabelas, (in Greek), Ioannina, 2015, p. 105, subnote 7.</p><br>
<p>, (in Greek), Chronicles of Preveza, vol. 49-50, pp. 383-430.</p><br>
<p>The second view suggests that the name originates from the old Albanian word prevëzë -za, which means paggage, transition, crossing over. This view is adopted mainly by: Petros Fourikis, Konstantinos Amantos, Max Vasmer, Peter Soustal & Johannes Koder, Alexis G.K. Savvides, Nikos D. Karableas, Demosthenis A. Donos, and others.</p><br>
<p>The third view suggests that the word originates from the Italian word prevesione, which means provision, supply. This view was mainly adopted by Panagiotis Aravantinos.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The present municipality Preveza was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 3 former municipalities, that became municipal units (constituent communities in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Louros (Ano Rachi, Kotsanopoulo, Louros, Neo Sfinoto, Oropos, Revmatia, Skiadas, Stefani, Trikastro, Vrysoula)</p><br>
<p>Preveza (Flampoura, Michalitsi, Mytikas, Nicopolis, Preveza)</p><br>
<p>Zalongo (Cheimadio, Ekklissies, Kamarina, Kanali, Kryopigi, Myrsini, Nea Sampsounta, Nea Sinopi, Riza, Vrachos)</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 380.541 km, the municipal unit 66.835 km.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>In antiquity, the south-southwestern part of Epirus was inhabited by the Greek tribe of Cassopeans, part of a larger tribe, the Thesprotians. Their capital city was Cassope (today, near the village of Kamarina). At the southernmost part of Epirus, king Pyrrhus founded, in 290 BC, the town of Berenikea or Berenike, named after his mother-in-law Berenice I of Egypt., Today, it is believed that Berenikea lies on the hills near the village of Michalitsi, following the excavations by Sotirios Dakaris in 1965. The Ionian Sea, near Berenikea, was the site of the naval Battle of Actium, on 2 September 31 BC, in which Octavian&#39;s forces defeated those of Mark Antony and queen Cleopatra of Egypt. The ancient city of Nicopolis (Νικόπολις, "Victory City") was built, nearby, by Augustus to commemorate his victory. The city is believed to have, at its peak, a population of 150,000. In AD 90, Epictetus arrived at Nicopolis, after been banished by the Roman emperor Domitian, and established a school of philosophy. One of his students, Arrian, became a famous historian and recorded all of his works.</p><br>
<h3>Medieval period</h3><br>
<p>Nicopolis continued under Roman and later Byzantine rule, experiencing brief periods of Bulgarian rule in the 10th century (920–922, 977–983, 996–997). According to one theory, modern Preveza grew around a military outpost built in the 9th century by the Bulgarians, following their conquest of Nicopolis.</p><br>
<p>The city was first attested in the Chronicle of the Morea (1292). However, Hammond places the foundation of Preveza much later, at the end of the 14th century, possibly by Albanians. After 1204, it came under the Despotate of Epirus (1204–1230, 1241–1338, 1356–1358), the Second Bulgarian Empire (1230–1241), the Serbian Empire (1348–1356), and the Despotate of Arta (1358–1401). It then came under Venetian rule until captured by the Ottomans.</p><br>
<h3>First Ottoman Period</h3><br>
<p>The Ottomans refounded Preveza probably in 1477, with a subsequent strengthening of the fortifications in 1495. The naval Battle of Preveza was fought off the shores of Preveza on 29 September 1538, where the Ottoman fleet of Hayreddin Barbarossa defeated a united Christian fleet under the Genoese captain Andrea Doria. This day is a Turkish Navy National Holiday, and some of today Turkish submarines called "Preveze".</p><br>
<h3>Venetian intervention</h3><br>
<p>Preveza was hotly contested in several Ottoman-Venetian Wars. In September 1684, at the early part of the Morean War, the Venetians, aided by Greek irregulars, crossed from the island of Lefkada (Santa Maura) and captured Preveza as well as Vonitsa, which gave them control of Acarnania - an important morale booster towards the main campaign in the Morea. However, at the end of the war in 1699 Preveza was handed back to Ottoman rule. Venice captured Preveza again in 1717, during its next war with the Ottomans and was this time able to hold on to the town and fort it - a meager achievement in a war which otherwise went very badly for the Republic. Venetian rule would persist until the very end of the Venetian Republic itself in 1797. During this period, in 1779, the Orthodox missionary Kosmas visited Preveza where it is said he founded a Greek school, which would be the only school of the city during the 18th century. At the end of the 18th century, Preveza became a transit center of trade with western Europe (particularly France), which resulted in the increase of its population to approximately 10,000–12,000.</p><br>
<h3>1797: Year of French Revolutionary rule, Ali Pasha's conquest and massacre</h3><br>
<p>Following the Treaty of Campo Formio, where Napoleon Bonaparte decreed the final dissolution of the Venetian Republic, Preveza – like other Venetian possessions in Greece and Albania – was ceded to Revolutionary France. 280 French grenadiers arrived in Preveza under the commands of General La Salchette. The people of Preveza welcomed the French troops, and formed a pro-French civic militia. Around this same time the poet Rigas Feraios was combining support for the ideas of the French Revolution with calls for a Greek uprising against Ottoman rule. He was intercepted and killed by the Ottoman authorities when en route to meet Napoleon and directly ask for his help for the Greek cause.</p><br>
<p>Napoleon Bonaparte, however, focused his attention in another direction, launching the French Campaign in Egypt and Syria, placing France at war with the Ottoman Empire and giving little thought to the fate of the small Preveza garrison exposed on the edge of Ottoman territory. In October 1798, the local Ottoman governor Ali Pasha Tepelena – having great ambitions to make himself a semi-independent ruler – attacked Preveza with an overwhelming force. In the Battle of Nicopolis on 12 October 1798 the 7,000 Ottoman troops of Ali Pasha and his son Mukhtar completely overwhelmed the 280 French grenadiers and their local allies, the 200 Preveza Civil Guards and 60 Souliote warriors under Captain Christakis. Over the next two days, 13–14 October 1798, a major massacre of the French troops and the local Greek population which defended the city took place in Preveza and Port Salaora, on the Ambracian Gulf, starting before Ali Pasha entered Preveza on 13 October but also continuing in his presence. On 14 October, Ali Pasha called on those citizens of Preveza who had escaped to the Acarnanian Mountains to return to the city, and declared that they would be in no danger. However, upon their return, 170 of them were executed by the sword at the Salaora Port Customs. Many prisoners who survived the massacre died from the hardships on the road to Ioannina. In the grand return and reception held for his victorious troops, which Ali Pasha organized at Ioannina, surviving French and rebel prisoners were given the unpleasant role of walking at the head of the procession, holding the cut and salted heads of their companions, under the shouts and jeers of Ioanninas pro-Ottoman residents. From Ioannina, nine captured French grenadiers, and two officers were sent chained to Istanbul for questioning. One of them, Captain Louis-Auguste Camus de Richemont, was later released, possibly mediated by the mother of Napoleon Bonaparte, Maria Letizia Bonaparte, and eventually became a general. Some popularly circulating tales, of doubtful historical authenticity, link this incident with the origins of the Spoonmakers Diamond, one of the most closely guarded treasures of Istanbul&#39;s Topkapı Palace.</p><br>
<p>Though Preveza would remain under Ottoman rule for more than a century, this event – both the short period of Greek militias active in the city and the shock of the massacre that followed – and the influence of the ideas of the French Revolution had a part in the development of Greek nationalism towards the Greek War of Independence, which broke out three decades later.</p><br>
<h3>Second Ottoman Period</h3><br>
<p>From 1798 to 1820, Preveza was under the rule of the semi-independent Ali Pasha Tepelena. Following his death in 1822 at Ioannina, Preveza was more directly controlled from Istanbul. Preveza became the seat of a province (the Sanjak of Preveze) in 1863, until the year 1912 when the city joined Greece. In 1835, educational activity in the city revived with the foundation of a new Greek school, the Theophaneios, named after its sponsor, Anastassios Theophanis. In the following decades, this school became a centre of education in the surrounding area and in 1851 it also hosted a female and a secondary school.</p><br>
<p>According to the Congress of Berlin in 1878, parts of southern Epirus, including Preveza, were to be ceded by the Ottoman Empire to the Kingdom of Greece. Under this context, five meetings were held in Preveza, between Greek and Ottoman representatives, but all of them failed to reach an agreement. Even before negotiations started, the Ottoman side used a number of Albanian national figures for delaying purposes and appointed Abedin bey Dino, member of the League of Prizren and representative of the Albanian national movement, as Ottoman foreign minister. Moreover, Abedin Dino managed to gather various Albanian personalities in Preveza, from all over Albania and Epirus, who believed that the Ottomans will provide full support to the Albanian movement and were against annexation of Epirus to Greece. They also organized a meeting there in January 1879 and on February 28, 1879, signed a petition with a threat to take arms to prevent an annexation of Preveza to Greece. As a result of the unrest created, led by Abdyl Frashëri, another Albanian national figure, the local Ottoman governor was recalled. Abedin Dino was also recalled from Preveza, while the recently arrived Albanians left the city and returned to their homelands.</p><br>
<p>The discussions between the two sides continued latter in Constantinople, but the Ottoman side disagreed with the proposed border by using as an excuse the unrest created by Albanian representatives. In March 1881, the Ottoman side proposed the cession of Thessaly and Arta regions, a proposal that ignored the Albanian positions, and was finally accepted by Greece, although most of Epirus was still outside Greece. On the other hand, the Greek organisation, Epirote Society, founded at 1906 by members of the Epirote diaspora, Panagiotis Danglis and Spyros Spyromilios, aimed at the annexation of the region to Greece by supplying local Greeks with firearms.</p><br>
<p>From 1881 to 1912 the main sectors of the local economy witnessed dramatic decline and the port of the city lost most of its former commercial significance. However, education was still flourishing with two schools operating: one boys and one girls school. The school system of the city was primarily financed by Anastasios Theofanis, notable member of the diaspora.</p><br>
<h3>Annexation to Greece</h3><br>
<p>The city of Preveza remained under Ottoman control until finally taken by the Greek Army on 21 October 1912, during the First Balkan War. The city was liberated after the Battle of Nicopolis, by the Greek forces under Colonel Papagiotis Spiliadis. A garrison of the 8th Infantry Division was stationed in the city by December. Later on in the same war, on 8 February 1913, the inhabitants of Preveza were involved in the first instance in world history of a pilot being shot down in combat. The Russian pilot N. de Sackoff, flying for the Greeks, had his biplane hit by ground fire following a bomb run on the walls of Fort Bizani near Ioannina. He came down near Preveza, and with the help of local townspeople repaired his plane and resumed his flight back to base. In the following months there arrived in Preveza the famous Swiss photographer Frederic Boissonnas, and a lot of photographs from this period are available today. Preveza along with the rest of southern Epirus formally became part of Greece via the Treaty of London in 1913.</p><br>
<p>After the Balkan Wars the harbor of Preveza became a significant regional commercial center in western Greece. Moreover, local labor unions were created during the Interwar period.</p><br>
<h3>Second World War</h3><br>
<p>Along with the rest of Greece, Preveza was occupied by Fascist Italy (1941–1943) and Nazi Germany (1943–1944) during World War II. After the departure of the Wehrmacht from Preveza, in September 1944, an episode of the Greek Civil War known as the Battle of Preveza took place, lasting for 16 days, between armed partisans of the right-wing EDES and the left-wing EAM-ELAS. The fights stopped after the Convention of Cazerta between Great Britain and the two main Greek resistance groups, EDES and ELAS.</p><br>
<h3>Modern period</h3><br>
<p>Today Preveza is a commercial harbour and tourist hub, with a marina, 4 Museums, two cinemas, an open theatre, a music Hall (OASIS), many clubs, taverns and cafes, benefiting from its proximity to the nearby Aktion National Airport and the nearby island of Lefkada, a major tourist destination. There are in the city University of Financial (TEI) and Commercial Navy Academy. The Aktio-Preveza Immersed Tunnel, opened on 2002, is an important work of infrastructure for what has traditionally been a remote and underdeveloped region, and links Preveza to Actium (Άκτιο, Aktio) on the southern shore of the Ambracian Gulf, greatly shortening the distance of the trip to Lefkada.</p><br>
<h2>Notable sights</h2><br>
<p>Ancient Nicopolis area (Walls, Basilica of Alkisson, Basilica of Domitius, Roman Odeon, Nympheum, Roman Baths, Cemetery, Theatre, Augustus Monument, Roman Stadium, Roman Villa of Manius Antoninus etc.)</p><br>
<p>Ancient Cassope (400 BC), 25 km from Preveza</p><br>
<p>Ancient Trikastron citadel (700 – 300BC), 30 km from Preveza</p><br>
<p>Ancient Berenikea, Michalitsi village hills (270 BC).</p><br>
<p>State Archaeological Museum of Nikopolis</p><br>
<p>St. Charalampos Church (1715–1793)</p><br>
<p>St. Varnavas Church</p><br>
<p>St. Abassos Church</p><br>
<p>Forest of Lekatsas, in Myrsini village</p><br>
<p>Fortress of Laskara, Ali Pasha period (1810)</p><br>
<p>Fortress of Pantokrator, Ali Pasha period (1810)</p><br>
<p>Fortress of St. Andreas, Venetian (1701–1717) and Ottoman period (1810)</p><br>
<p>Fortress of St. George (1718)</p><br>
<p>Fortress of Reniassa (or Fortress of Despo) in Riza (1280)</p><br>
<p>St. Elias prophet church (1780)</p><br>
<p>Aktio-Preveza Undersea Tunnel, 2002</p><br>
<p>Kostas Karyotakis&#39; statue and last residence</p><br>
<p>Madonna Church of Foreigners (Panagia ton Xenon) (1780)</p><br>
<p>Monolithi beach and Monolithi forest</p><br>
<p>National Bank of Greece building (1931)</p><br>
<p>Odysseus Androutsos&#39; marble statue</p><br>
<p>Ottoman baths of Ali Pasha Tepelena</p><br>
<p>Seytan Pazar, traditional street</p><br>
<p>St. Thomas Port, Preveza</p><br>
<p>Margarona traditional boatyard</p><br>
<p>Venetian clock tower of Preveza</p><br>
<p>Zalongo monument</p><br>
<h2>Notable natives and residents</h2><br>
<p>Odysseas Androutsos, a hero of the Greek War of Independence.</p><br>
<p>Evaggelos Avdikos, sociologist, professor of University of Larissa.</p><br>
<p>Abedin Dino, founding member of the League of Prizren and leading figure of the Albanian National Awakening.</p><br>
<p>Ali Dino (1890–1938), famous Albanian cartoonist and member of the Hellenic Parliament.</p><br>
<p>Rasih Dino (1865–1928), diplomat and signatory of Albania to the Treaty of London.</p><br>
<p>Shahin Dino, deputy of the sanjak of Preveza in the Ottoman Parliament and later Minister of Interior of Albania.</p><br>
<p>Theodoros Grivas (1797–1862), hero of the Greek War of Independence.</p><br>
<p>Jannis Kallinikos, scholar and intellectual.</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Kefalas (1794-1876), benefactor.</p><br>
<p>Nikolaos Konemenos (1837–1906), scholar.</p><br>
<p>Nikos D. Karabelas, writer and president of the foundation "Actia Nicopolis" in Preveza.</p><br>
<p>Kleareti Malamou-Dipla (1898–1977), poet and writer.</p><br>
<p>Athina Papayianni, athlete.</p><br>
<p>Kostas Provatas (1906–2001), popular painter from Nikopolis.</p><br>
<p>Anastasios Theofanous (d. 1814), merchant and benefactor, founder of Theofanios School of Preveza.</p><br>
<p>Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos (1897–1989), Hellenic Army chief and ambassador.</p><br>
<p>Athanasia Tsoumeleka, athlete and Olympic Games Gold winner, in Fast Running.</p><br>
<p>Alexios Vlahopoulos, hero of the Greek War of Independence.</p><br>
<p>Konstantinos Vlachopoulos, hero of the Greek War of Independence.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Preveza is linked by road to Igoumenitsa and other coastal settlements through the E55 national road, and is also linked with other cities in Epirus such as Ioannina and Arta. The Aktio-Preveza Undersea Tunnel links Preveza by road to Aetolia-Acarnania in Central Greece. Preveza also has a small commercial and passenger port and is served by the nearby Aktion National Airport, which also serves the island of Lefkada.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population statistics</h2><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns – sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Preveza is a founding member of the Douzelage, a unique town twinning association of 24 towns across the European Union. This active town twinning began in 1991 and there are regular events, such as a produce market from each of the other countries and festivals. Discussions regarding membership are also in hand with three further towns (Agros in Cyprus, Škofja Loka in Slovenia and Tryavna in Bulgaria).</p><br>
<p>The Ionian Islands  are a group of islands in Greece. They are traditionally called the Heptanese, i.e. "the Seven Islands" , but the group includes many smaller islands as well as the seven principal ones. As a distinct historic region they date to the centuries-long Venetian rule, which preserved them from becoming part of the Ottoman Empire, and created a distinct cultural identity with many Italian influences. The Ionian Islands became part of the modern Greek state in 1864. Administratively today they belong to the Ionian Islands Region except for Kythera, which belongs to the Attica Region.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The seven islands are; from north to south:</p><br>
<p>Kerkyra (Κέρκυρα) usually known as Corfu in English and Corfù in Italian</p><br>
<p>Paxi (Παξοί) also known as Paxos in English</p><br>
<p>Lefkada (Λευκάδα) also known as Lefkas in English</p><br>
<p>Ithaki (Ιθάκη) usually known as Ithaca in English</p><br>
<p>Kefalonia (Κεφαλλονιά) often known as Kefalonia, Cephalonia and Kefallinia in English</p><br>
<p>Zakynthos (Ζάκυνθος) sometimes known as Zante in English and Italian</p><br>
<p>Kythira (Κύθηρα) usually known as Cythera in English and sometimes known as Cerigo in English and Italian</p><br>
<p>The six northern islands are off the west coast of Greece, in the Ionian Sea. The seventh island, Kythira, is off the southern tip of the Peloponnese, the southern part of the Greek mainland. Kythira is not part of the region of the Ionian Islands, as it is included in the region of Attica.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>In Ancient Greek the adjective Ionios (Ἰόνιος) was used as an epithet for the sea between Epirus and Italy in which the Ionian Islands are found because Io swam across it. Latin transliteration, as well as Modern Greek pronunciation, may suggest that the Ionian Sea and Islands are somehow related to Ionia, an Anatolian region; in fact the Ionian Sea and Ionian Islands are spelled in Greek with an omicron (Ιόνια), whereas Ionia has an omega (Ιωνία), reflecting a classical difference in pronunciation. In Modern Greek omicron and omega represent the same sound, but the two words are still distinguished by stress: the western "Ionia" is accented on the antepenult, and the eastern on the penult. In English, the adjective relating to Ionia is Ionic, not Ionian.</p><br>
<p>The islands themselves are known by a rather confusing variety of names. During the centuries of rule by Venice, they acquired Venetian names, by which some of them are still known in English (and in Italian). Kerkyra was known as Corfù, Ithaki as Val di Compare, Kythera as Cerigo, Lefkada as Santa Maura and Zakynthos as Zante.</p><br>
<p>A variety of spellings are used for the Greek names of the islands, particularly in historical writing. Kefallonia is often spelled as Cephallenia or Cephalonia, Ithaki as Ithaca, Kerkyra as Corcyra, Kythera as Cythera, Lefkada as Leucas or Leucada and Zakynthos as Zacynthus or Zante. Older or variant Greek forms are sometimes also used: Kefallinia for Kefallonia and Paxos or Paxoi for Paxi.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The islands were settled by Greeks at an early date, possibly as early as 1200 BC, and certainly by the 9th century BC. The early Eretrian settlement at Kerkyra was displaced by colonists from Corinth in 734 BC. The islands were mostly a backwater during Ancient Greek times and played little part in Greek politics. The one exception was the conflict between Kerkyra and its mother-City Corinth in 434 BC, which brought intervention from Athens and triggered the Peloponnesian War.</p><br>
<p>Ithaca was the name of the island home of Odysseus in the epic Ancient Greek poem the Odyssey by Homer. Attempts have been made to identify Ithaki with ancient Ithaca, but the geography of the real island cannot be made to fit Homer&#39;s description. Archeological investigations have revealed interesting findings in both Kefalonia and Ithaca.</p><br>
<h3>Roman and Byzantine rule</h3><br>
<p>By the 4th century BC, most of the islands, were absorbed into the empire of Macedon. Some remained under the control of the Macedonian Kingdom until 146 BC, when the Greek peninsula was gradually annexed by Rome. After 400 years of peaceful Roman rule, the islands passed to the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Under Byzantine rule, from the mid-8th century, they formed the theme of Cephallenia. The islands were a frequent target of Saracen raids and from the late 11th century, saw a number of Norman and Italian attacks. Most of the islands fell to William II of Sicily in 1185. Although Corfu and Lefkas remained under Byzantine control, Kefallonia and Zakynthos became the County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos until 1357, when this entity was merged with Lefkada and Ithaki to become the Duchy of Leucadia under French and Italian dukes. Corfu, Paxi and Kythera were taken by the Venetians in 1204, after the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade. These became important overseas colonies of the Republic and were used as way-stations for their maritime trade with the Levant.</p><br>
<h3>Venetian rule</h3><br>
<p>From 1204, the Republic of Venice controlled Corfu and slowly all the Ionian islands fell under Venetian rule. In the 15th century, the Ottomans conquered most of Greece, but their attempts to conquer the islands were largely unsuccessful. Zakynthos passed permanently to Venice in 1482, Kefallonia and Ithaki in 1483, Lefkada in 1502. Kythera had been in Venetian hands since 1238.</p><br>
<p>The islands thus became the only part of the Greek-speaking world to escape Ottoman rule, which gave them both a unity and an importance in Greek history they would otherwise not have had. Corfu was the only Greek island never conquered by the Turks.</p><br>
<p>Under Venetian rule, many of the upper classes spoke Italian (or Venetian in some cases) and converted to Roman Catholicism, but the majority remained Greek ethnically, linguistically, and religiously.</p><br>
<p>In the 18th century, a Greek national independence movement began to emerge, and the free status of the Ionian islands made them the natural base for exiled Greek intellectuals, freedom fighters and foreign sympathisers. The islands became more self-consciously Greek as the 19th century, the century of romantic nationalism, neared.</p><br>
<h3>Napoleonic era</h3><br>
<p>In 1797, however, Napoléon Bonaparte conquered Venice, and by the Treaty of Campo Formio the islanders found themselves under French rule, the islands being organised as the départments Mer-Égée, Ithaque and Corcyre. In 1798, the Russian Admiral Ushakov evicted the French, and established the Septinsular Republic under joint Russo-Ottoman protection—the first time Greeks had had even limited self-government since the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The plenipotentiary of the Czar was Count George Mocenigo, a noble from Zante who had earlier served as Russian diplomat in Italy. However, in 1807, they were ceded again to the French in the Treaty of Tilsit and occupied by the French Empire.</p><br>
<h3>British influence</h3><br>
<p>In 1809, the British defeated the French fleet in Zakynthos (October 2, 1809) captured Kefallonia, Kythera and Zakynthos, and took Lefkada in 1810. The French held out in Corfu until 1814. The Treaty of Paris in 1815 turned the islands into the "United States of the Ionian Islands" under British protection (November 5, 1815). In January 1817, the British granted the islands a new constitution. The islanders elected an Assembly of 40 members, who advised the British High Commissioner. The British greatly improved the islands&#39; communications, and introduced modern education and justice systems. The islanders welcomed most of these reforms, and took up afternoon tea, cricket and other English pastimes.</p><br>
<p>Once Greek independence was established after 1830, however, the islanders began to resent foreign colonial rule by the British, and to press for Enosis, i. e. union with Greece. The British statesman William Ewart Gladstone toured the islands and recommended that having already Malta, giving the islands to Greece wouldn&#39;t hurt the interest of the British Empire. The British government resisted, since like the Venetians they found the islands made useful naval bases. They also regarded the Bavarian-born king of Greece, King Otto, as unfriendly to Britain. However, in 1862, Otto was deposed and a pro-British king, George I, was installed.</p><br>
<h3>Union with Greece</h3><br>
<p>In 1862, Britain decided to transfer the islands to Greece, as a gesture of support intended to bolster the new kings popularity. On May 2, 1864, the British departed and the islands became three provinces of the Kingdom of Greece though Britain retained the use of the port of Corfu. On 21 May 1864 the Ionian Islands officially reunited with Greece. Prince Philippos of Greece and Denmark was born in Corfu in 1921 and grew up to become Britains Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>In 1941, when Axis forces occupied Greece, the Ionian Islands (except Kythera) were handed over to the Italians. In 1943, the Germans replaced the Italians, and deported the centuries-old Jewish community of Corfu to their deaths. By 1944, most of the islands were under the control of the EAM/ELAS resistance movement, and they have remained a stronghold of left-wing sentiment ever since.</p><br>
<h3>1953 earthquake</h3><br>
<p>The 1953 Ionian islands earthquake occurred with a surface wave magnitude of 7.2 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme) on August 12, 1953. Building damage was extensive and the southern islands of Kefalonia and Zakynthos were practically levelled. The islands were reconstructed from the ground up over the following years under a strict building code. The code has proven extremely effective, as many earthquakes since that time have caused no damage to new buildings.</p><br>
<h3>Today</h3><br>
<p>Today, all the islands are part of the Greek region of the Ionian Islands (Ionioi Nisoi), except Kythera, which is part of the region of Attica. Kerkyra has a population of 103,300 (including Paxoi), Zakynthos 40,650, Kefallonia 39,579 (including Ithaca), Lefkada 22,536, Ithaki 3,052, Kythera 3,000 and Paxi 2,438.</p><br>
<p>In recent decades, the islands have lost much of their population through emigration and the decline of their traditional industries, fishing and marginal agriculture. Today, their major industry is tourism. Specifically Kerkyra, with its harbour, scenery and wealth of ruins and castles, is a favourite stopping place for cruise liners. British tourists in particular are attracted through having read Gerald Durrells evocative book My Family and Other Animals (1956), which describes his childhood on Kerkyra in the 1930s. The novel and movie Captain Corellis Mandolin are set in Kefallonia, in which Captain Corelli is part of the Italian occupation force during the Second World War.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The Ionian Islands&#39; official population, excluding Cythera, in 2011 was 207,855, decreased by 1.50% compared to the population in 2001. Nevertheless, the region remains the third by population density with 90.1/km² nationwide, well above the national of 81.96/km². The most populous of the major islands is Corfu with a population of 104,371, followed by Zante (40,759), Cephalonia (35,801), Leucas (23.693) and Ithaca (3.231). The foreign-born population was in 2001 19,360 or 9.3%, the majority of which was concentrated in Corfu and Zante. Most of them originate from Albania (13,536). The fertility rate for 2011 according to Eurostat was 1.35 live births per woman during her lifetime.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The regional Gross Domestic Product for 2010 was 4,029 million euros. The GDP per capita for the same year was 18,440 euros per capita which was lower than the national median of 20,481. However, the GDP per capita of Cephalonia and Zante, 23,275 and 24,616 respectively, was much higher than the national figure. Additionally, unemployment for 2012 was 14.7, the lowest among all Greek regions, and much lower compared to the national unemployment of 24.2.</p><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<p>The region is a popular tourist destination. The airports of Corfu, Zante and Cephalonia were in the top ten in Greece by number of international arrivals, with 1,386,289 international arrivals for 2012, with Corfu being the sixth airport by number of arrivals nationwide, with Zante and Cephalonia also being in the top ten. While Cephalonia Airport had the biggest increase nationwide by 13.11% compared to 2011, while Corfu had an increase of 6.31%.</p><br>
<h2>Major communities</h2><br>
<p>Argostóli (Αργοστόλι), in Kefalonia</p><br>
<p>Kérkyra (Κέρκυρα), in Corfu</p><br>
<p>Lefkáda (Λευκάδα), in Lefkada</p><br>
<p>Lixouri (Ληξούρι), in Kefalonia</p><br>
<p>Zákynthos (Ζάκυνθος), in Zakynthos</p><br>
<p>Trikala  is a city in northwestern Thessaly, Greece, and the capital of the Trikala regional unit. The city straddles the Lithaios river, which is a tributary of Pineios. According to the Greek National Statistical Service, Trikala is populated by 81,355 inhabitants , while in total the Trikala regional unit is populated by 131,085 inhabitants .</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>The region of Trikala has been inhabited since prehistoric times. The first indications of permanent settlement have been uncovered in the cave of Theopetra, and date back to approx. 49,000 BC. Neolithic settlements dating back to 6,000 BC have been uncovered in Megalo Kefalovriso and other locations.</p><br>
<p>The city of Trikala is built on the ancient city of Trikka or Trikke, which was founded around the 3rd millennium BC and took its name from the nymph Trikke, daughter of Penaeus, or according to others, daughter of the river god Asopus. The ancient city was built at a defensive location in between the local hill and the river Lithaios. The city became an important center in antiquity and it was considered to be the birthplace and main residence of the healing god Asclepius. The city exhibited one of the most important and ancient of Asclepius healing temples, called asclepieia. The city is mentioned in Homers Iliad as having participated in the Trojan War with thirty ships under Asclepius&#39; sons Machaon and Podalirius. In the Mycenean period, the city was the capital of a kingdom, and later it constituted the main center of the Thessalian region of Estaiotis, which occupied roughly the territory of the modern Trikala Prefecture.</p><br>
<p>In historical times, the city of Trikke and the surrounding area experienced prosperity. It fell to the Achaemenid Persians in 480 BC, while ten years later it joined the Thessalian monetary union. In 352 BC it was united with the Macedonia of Philip II. The city became a location of hard battles between Macedonia and Rome. While Philip V of Macedon and his son Perseus tried to keep the city, after 168 BC it fell to the Roman Republic.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages</h3><br>
<p>While the area was considered to be firmly under the rule of the Byzantine Empire, it was invaded nevertheless by a succession of raiders and nomadic tribes. Some of these tribes that raided the area include: Goths (396), Huns (447), Slavs (577), Bulgarians (986-1000), Normans (1082/3), Catalans (1309–1311).</p><br>
<p>The current name of Trikala first appears in the 11th-century Strategikon of Kekaumenos, where "Trikalitan Vlachs" are mentioned, and then in the early 12th-century Alexiad of Anna Komnene. Later in the century, the Arab traveller and geographer al-Idrisi recorded the town as "an important agrarian center with abundant vineyards and gardens" (T.E. Gregory).</p><br>
<p>After the dissolution of the Byzantine state by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Trikala does not appear to have fallen into Frankish hands, but became part of the Despotate of Epirus. Epirote rule lasted until 1259, when the town was taken without resistance by the Empire of Nicaea (after 1261 the renewed Byzantine Empire) following the Battle of Pelagonia. In the early 14th century the town was the capital of a semi-independent domain under the sebastokrator Stephen Gabrielopoulos, which extended across much of western Thessaly and Macedonia. After his death in 1332/3 the city, along with most of Gabrielopoulos&#39; lands, was seized by the Epirote ruler John II Orsini, but he was in turn expelled and the area incorporated into the Byzantine Empire by Andronikos III Palaiologos.</p><br>
<p>In 1348, Thessaly was conquered by Stephen Dushan and incorporated into the newly established Serbian Empire. The Serbian general Preljub was made the regions governor, and established himself at Trikala. In 1359, Dushans half-brother Symeon Uroš established his court at Trikala, and in 1366/7 he founded the Meteora monasteries nearby. Symeon was succeeded by his son John Uroš, and he in turn by the local magnates Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos and Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos, who ruled until the Ottoman conquest of Thessaly in 1393/4.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman and modern periods</h3><br>
<p>Under Ottoman rule, the city was called Tırhala in Turkish. Its fortunes in the early period of Ottoman rule are unclear: it is reported as being part of a large sanjak under Ahmed, the son of Evrenos Bey, but in the early 15th century it formed part of the domain of Turahan Bey, who brought in Muslim settlers and granted privileges to the local Greek population. Turahan and his son and successor, Ömer Bey, erected many buildings in the city, helping it, in the words of the historian Alexandra Yerolimpos, to " the appearance of a typical Ottoman town, with mosques, medreses, a hammam, imaret, khan and karwansaray extending beyond the citadel and the Varoussi (Varosh) quarter which remained Christian".</p><br>
<p>As the administrative center of the local province (the Sanjak of Trikala), the city attracted Muslim immigrants and had large Muslim and Jewish communities: in the 1454/5 census, the city had 2,453 inhabitants (251 Muslim families and 9 widows, and 212 Christian families and 73 widows); in 1506, the city numbered 3,100 inhabitants, with 260 Muslim, 310 Christian and 19 Jewish families; in 1520/38, the number had risen to 301 Muslim, 343 Christian, and 181 Jewish families. The city also became an important intellectual center during these years (1543-1854) with the Trikke School (and later Greek School), where famous intellectuals of the time, such as Dionysius the Philosopher, taught.</p><br>
<p>The 17th-century Ottoman traveller Evliya Çelebi reports that the city had 2,300 houses divided into sixteen Muslim and eight Christian quarters (mahalla); eight mosques, of which only the citys main mosque, the Osman Shah Mosque built by Mimar Sinan, survives today; four hammams; six tekkes; and the probably exaggerated number of 1,000 shops, although Evliya curiously does not mention the citys impressive bezesten (covered market) which was demolished in the early 20th century. The city was largely burned down in a great fire in 1749, a destruction repeated by Albanian irregulars following an abortive uprising by the local Christian population during the Orlov Revolt. Despite the destruction, its population seems to have remained the same, ca. 25,000, until the outbreak of the Greek Revolution in 1821. By 1840, it reportedly had only 10,000 inhabitants, with the last Ottoman census in 1877/8 listing 25,000 inhabitants for the entire sanjak of Trikala.</p><br>
<p>On 23 August 1881 with the Treaty of Constantinople between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Greece, the city passed in Greek sovereignty, along with the rest of Thessaly. It became occupied again by Ottoman forces briefly during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. In the years that followed, Trikala played a fundamental role in the rural workers&#39; mobilizations, in the early 20th century, against the Thessalian landlords (Τσιφλικάδες). Trikala eventually became the city that the first Agricultural Cooperative of Greece was founded, in 1906.</p><br>
<p>The town lost much of its Ottoman and medieval buildings in the early 20th century, particularly after it was rebuilt to a modern urban plan in the 1930s.</p><br>
<h2>Sights</h2><br>
<p>The archaeological site of Asklepieion of Trikke, the most significant and most ancient of Greece, according to Strabo.</p><br>
<p>The Byzantine Castle, built by Justinian onto the acropolis of ancient Trikke in the 6th century AD. Later it was rebuilt by the Ottomans, who in the 17th century placed a huge clock tower, which was accompanied by a bell weighing 650 kg. In 1936, another clock tower was placed and today remains the trademark of the city, while offers a panoramic view to the city.</p><br>
<p>The Osman Shah Mosque (16th century), building designed by Mimar Sinan. Behind the mosque stands the mausoleum of Osman Shah, nephew of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent.</p><br>
<p>The Old City of Trikala, which consists of the districts Varousi and Manavika. Varousi was the Christian district of Trikala during the Turkish rule and is located at the foot of the fortress. Until 1930, this part of the city was considered as the noble district of Trikala and is now preserved in its entirety, with a large number of old buildings, built between 17th and 19th century, preserved until today. In this part are located the oldest churches of the city. Following the district Varousi up to the central square is the part of the city called Manavika, a neighborhood of the old city with a uniform architecture. Here are located some of the best restaurants, coffee shops, and bars in town.</p><br>
<p>The hill of Prophitis Ilias, a park with a nice view of the city and within walking distance from the city center. On this hill is situated the church of the Prophet Elijah and the zoo.</p><br>
<p>Lithaios river and the Central Bridge, built in 1886, which connects the central square with the Asclepius pedestrian zone.</p><br>
<p>The Mill of Matsopoulos, which was constructed in 1884 and today is a historical-industrial building and cultural center. During the Christmas period, the stone-built Matsopoulos Mill transforms into the “Mill of Elves”, a famous Christmas park</p><br>
<p>The Trikala Train Station, built in 1886, the courthouse and many more historical and neoclassical buildings.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The municipality Trikala was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 8 former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Estiaiotida</p><br>
<p>Faloreia</p><br>
<p>Kallidendro</p><br>
<p>Koziakas</p><br>
<p>Megala Kalyvia</p><br>
<p>Paliokastro</p><br>
<p>Paralithaioi</p><br>
<p>Trikala</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 607.585 km, the municipal unit 69.205 km.</p><br>
<h3>Province</h3><br>
<p>The province of Trikala was one of the provinces of the Trikala Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipalities Trikala, Farkadona and Pyli. It was abolished in 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Infrastructure</h2><br>
<p>Trikala is home to the General Hospital of the Trikala Prefecture. The Physical Education and Sport Science department of the University of Thessaly is also located in Trikala, and was founded in 1994, with the first students being admitted in the academic year 1994-1995; it was originally housed in the Matsopoulos Park facility, but moved to the new Karyes campus in July 1999. Trikala has over 20 schools of secondary education, and a modern night technical school also functions in the town.</p><br>
<p>Trikala has the distinction of being the first “smart city” in Greece – integrating technology-powered solutions into the daily life of the municipality and delivering government services to citizens through e-governance.</p><br>
<h2>Sporting teams</h2><br>
<p>Trikala F.C., a football team that competed in the Greek first division, as recently as the 1999–00 season.</p><br>
<p>Trikala 2000 B.C., a basketball team that competed in the Greek top division, in the 2008–09 and 2009–10 seasons. The team was dismantled following the team&#39;s relegation from the top division, and ensuing financial difficulties.</p><br>
<p>Aries Trikala B.C., a basketball team that is currently competing in the top division.</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<p>Trikala is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Amberg, Germany</p><br>
<p>Braşov, Romania</p><br>
<p>Chongqing, People&#39;s Republic of China</p><br>
<p>Pyatigorsk, Russia</p><br>
<p>Talence, France</p><br>
<p>Pace del Mela, Italy</p><br>
<p>Tucson, United States</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Asclepius (about 1247 BC) God of medicine in ancient Greek religion and mythology</p><br>
<p>Œcumenius (about 990) Bishop of Trikka (now Trikkala)</p><br>
<p>Evangelos Averoff (1910–1990) politician</p><br>
<p>Georgios Kondylis (1879–1936) army officer, Prime Minister of Greece</p><br>
<p>Stefanos Sarafis (1890-1957) major General in EAM-ELAS</p><br>
<p>Sotirios Kyrgiakos (1979) footballer</p><br>
<p>Dimitris Mitropanos (1948–2012) singer</p><br>
<p>Christos Papanikolaou (1941) pole vaulter</p><br>
<p>Efthimios Rentzias (1976) basketball player</p><br>
<p>Vassilis Tsitsanis (1915–1984) songwriter and singer</p><br>
<p>Sofia Sakorafa (1957) javelin&#39;s thrower, politician</p><br>
<p>Georgios Koltsidas (1970) footballer</p><br>
<p>Dimitrios Sgouros (1969) pianist</p><br>
<p>Kostas Papanikolaou (1990) basketball player</p><br>
<p>Achilles Holebas, father of Greek footballer José Holebas</p><br>
<p>Kostas Fortounis (1993) footballer</p><br>
<p>Grevena  is a town and municipality in Western Macedonia, Northern Greece, capital of the Grevena regional unit. The towns current population is 13,374 citizens . It lies about 400 km from Athens and about 180 km from Thessaloniki. The municipalitys population is 25,905. Grevena has had access to the Egnatia Odos since the early 2000s, which now connects Igoumenitsa with Thessaloniki and Alexandroupoli at the border with Turkey. Mountains surround the municipality, which is situated by the river Greveniotikos, which itself flows into the Aliakmon. Other significant towns in the municipality are Amygdaliés and Méga Seiríni. Grevena Municipal Museum is located in the town.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>Under Ottoman rule, Grevena (Ottoman name Gerebena) was the seat of the kaza of Grevena, Sanjak of Serfice, Manastir Vilayet.</p><br>
<h3>1995 earthquake</h3><br>
<p>The earthquake that occurred in the region on 13 May 1995 was 6.6 on the Richter magnitude scale, but it caused only material damage. The worst hit area was the county of Ventzia. There were two foreshocks of lesser intensity that preceded the main earthquake by a few minutes and warned people. These warnings sent the population out of their houses. When the main earthquake came, it destroyed nearly all the houses in several villages of the Ventzia County – the houses collapsed to the ground – but fortunately all the inhabitants were outside.</p><br>
<p>Another earthquake on 5 January 2005 measured 4.9 near Grevena. It took place at 20:00 local time (EET), and no damage was reported. Another earthquake with a measured intensity of 5.4 occurred on 17 July 2007 at 21:23 local time (EET) and was followed by weak aftershocks. Some older buildings were lightly damaged in villages northeast of Grevena.</p><br>
<h2>Administrative division</h2><br>
<h3>Municipality</h3><br>
<p>The municipality Grevena was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 13 former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Agios Kosmas</p><br>
<p>Avdella</p><br>
<p>Dotsiko</p><br>
<p>Filippaioi</p><br>
<p>Gorgiani</p><br>
<p>Grevena</p><br>
<p>Irakleotes</p><br>
<p>Mesolouri</p><br>
<p>Perivoli</p><br>
<p>Samarina</p><br>
<p>Smixi</p><br>
<p>Theodoros Ziakas</p><br>
<p>Ventzio</p><br>
<h3>Municipal unit</h3><br>
<p>The municipal unit of Grevena is divided into the following communities:</p><br>
<p>Agioi Theodoroi</p><br>
<p>Amygdalies</p><br>
<p>Elatos</p><br>
<p>Elefthero</p><br>
<p>Felli</p><br>
<p>Kalochi</p><br>
<p>Kyrakali</p><br>
<p>Megalo Seirini</p><br>
<p>Myrsina</p><br>
<p>Rodia</p><br>
<p>Syndendro</p><br>
<p>Vatolakkos</p><br>
<h3>Community</h3><br>
<p>The community of Grevena consists of three separate settlements:</p><br>
<p>Doxaras (population 208)</p><br>
<p>Grevena (population 13,137)</p><br>
<p>Kalamitsi (population 29)</p><br>
<p>The aforementioned population figures are.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<p>Kastoria  is a city in northern Greece in the region of West Macedonia. It is the capital of Kastoria regional unit. It is situated on a promontory on the western shore of Lake Orestiada, in a valley surrounded by limestone mountains. The town is known for its many Byzantine churches, Byzantine and Ottoman-era domestic architecture, fur clothing industry, and trout.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name "Kastoria" first appears in 550 AD, mentioned by Procopius as follows: "There was a certain city in Thessaly, Diocletianopolis by name, which had been prosperous in ancient times, but with the passage of time and the assaults of the barbarians it had been destroyed, and for a very long time it had been destitute of inhabitants; and a certain lake chances to be close by which was named Castoria. There is an island in the middle of the lake, for the most part surrounded by water; but there remains a single narrow approach to this island through the lake, not more than fifteen feet wide. And a very lofty mountain stands above the island, one half being covered by the lake while the remainder rests upon it." Although Procopius refers to it as "a city of Thessaly", the description is undoubtedly that of Kastoria, a city on a promontory in a lake.</p><br>
<p>There are several theories about the origin of the name Kastoria. The dominant of these is that the name derives from the Greek word κάστορας (kástoras, meaning "beaver"). Trade in the animals fur, sourced from nearby Lake Orestiada, has traditionally been an important element of the citys economy. Other theories propose that the name derives from the Greek word κάστρο (kástro, meaning "castle&quot from the Latin word castra) or from the mythical hero Κάστωρ (Kástōr), who may have been honoured in the area. The word is sometimes written with a C, Castoria, especially in older works. From Greek, the name was borrowed into Turkish as Kesriye. The Serbian, Bulgarian and Slavic name of the city is Kostur (Cyrillic: Костур).</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The municipality Kastoria was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 9 former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Agia Triada</p><br>
<p>Agioi Anargyroi</p><br>
<p>Kastoria</p><br>
<p>Kastraki</p><br>
<p>Kleisoura</p><br>
<p>Korestia</p><br>
<p>Makednoi</p><br>
<p>Mesopotamia</p><br>
<p>Vitsi</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 763.330 km, the municipal unit 57.318 km.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>Kastoria is believed to have ancient origins. Livy (XXXI, XL) mentions a town near a lake in Orestis, called Celetrum, whose inhabitants surrendered to Sulpitius during the Roman war against Philip V of Macedon (200 BC). The ancient town was possibly located on a hill above the town&#39;s current location.</p><br>
<p>The Roman Emperor Diocletian (ruled 284–305 AD) founded the town of Diocletianopolis in the vicinity. Procopius (De aedificiis, 4.3.1-4) relates that, after Diocletianopolis was destroyed by barbarians, Emperor Justinian relocated it on a promontory projecting into Lake Orestiada, the town&#39;s current location, and "gave it an appropriate name", perhaps indicating that he renamed it Justinianopolis. Th. L. Fr. Tafel, in his study on the Via Egnatia (De via militari Romanorum Egnatia, 1832), suggested that Celetrum, Diocletianopolis and Kastoria are three successive names of the same place.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages</h3><br>
<p>Kastoria itself does not appear, however, until the Byzantine–Bulgarian wars of the late 10th/early 11th century (the mention of Diocletianopolis in Constantine Porphyrogennetos&#39; De Thematibus is anachronistic, drawing from the 6th-century Synecdemus). The town was in Bulgarian hands until 1018, when it was conquered by Basil II.</p><br>
<p>Kastoria was occupied by the Normans under Bohemond I in 1082/83, but was soon recovered by Alexios I Komnenos. most notably the 11th-century scholar Tobiah ben Eliezer.</p><br>
<p>During the 13th and 14th centuries, the town became contested between several powers and changed hands often. The Second Bulgarian Empire held the city under Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II, until it was recovered by the Despotate of Epirus. The Nicaean Empire captured it in ca. 1252, but lost it again to Epirus in ca. 1257, only for the Nicaeans to recapture it following the Battle of Pelagonia (1259).</p><br>
<p>In the early 14th century, Kastoria was part of the domain of John II Doukas, "doux of Great Vlachia and Kastoria". After his death, the town became part of the semi-autonomous domain of Stephen Gabrielopoulos. After the latter&#39;s death in 1332/3, the Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos took over the town, but in the very next year (1334) it was surrendered briefly to the Serbs by the renegade Syrgiannes Palaiologos.</p><br>
<p>The Serbian ruler Stephen Dushan finally captured Kastoria in 1342/3, taking advantage of the ongoing Byzantine civil war, and made it part of his Serbian Empire. After Dushan&#39;s death, Kastoria became the seat of Symeon Uroš.</p><br>
<p>The town came later under the Epirote ruler Thomas Preljubović, and finally under the Albanian Muzaka family, until it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the mid-1380s.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman Era</h3><br>
<p>The Ottoman Turks conquered Kastoria around 1385, but it is unclear whether by force or by an agreement with its Albanian rulers. During the Ottoman period Kastoria acquired a sizeable Muslim population and several mosques and tekkes could be found in the city.</p><br>
<p>According to the findings of Vasil Kanchov, at the turn of the 20th century, the town had 3000 Greek Christians, 1600 Turkish Muslims, 750 Jews, 300 Bulgarian Christians, 300 Albanian Christians, and 240 Roma, for a total of 6190 inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>The city would remain under Ottoman rule (as part of Manastir Vilayet in the late 19th and early 20th century) until the First Balkan War (1912), when Greece took it. The 1913 treaties of London and Bucharest incorporated Kastoria into the Greek state. Following the end of the First World War the bulk of the Muslim element of Kastoria&#39;s population was transferred to Mustafapaşa, Turkey during the Greek-Turkish population exchange.</p><br>
<h4>Dolcho and Apozari</h4><br>
<p>During the Ottoman times, Kastoria attracted a multitude of people from across the Balkans and beyond, resulting in a diverse, multi-ethnic community. As a result, the city plan was radically transformed. The different ethnic communities, Bulgarian, Turkish, Greek and Jewish, became centred around separate neighbourhoods or ‘quarters’. Two old Greek lakeside quarters, the “Dolcho” and “Apozari” neighbourhoods, are among the best-preserved and last remaining traditional quarters of the city.</p><br>
<p>These neighbourhoods are characterised by the rich stock of old houses preserved in the shape of autonomous historic buildings, such as the important private mansions or the more humble folk dwellings (‘accessory’ buildings) built between the 17th and 19th centuries. During this time, the processing and exporting of animal furs to Europe created wealth, and city mansions, of particular architectural and decorative value, were built. This interconnected nexus of churches and private houses constitutes a rare example of a Byzantine and post-Byzantine township, and remains inhabited to this day.</p><br>
<p>The traditional buildings and manor houses of the “Dolcho” and “Apozari” neighbourhoods are threatened by modern development in the city, as well as structural degradation from poor levels of conservation. These sites were included on the 7 Most Endangered list of Europe’s most at-risk monuments and sites in 2014.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>During both World War II and the Greek Civil War, the town was repeatedly fought over and heavily damaged in the process. It was nearly captured by the Communist Democratic Army of Greece in 1948, and the final battles of the civil war took place on the nearby Mount Gramos in 1949.</p><br>
<p>The first Jewish community was a community of Romaniote Jews. One of them was Tobiah ben Eliezer. In 1940 the Jewish population in Kastoria numbered 900, composed predominantly of Ladino-speaking Sephardic Jews. Many family names were of Italian origin as a result of emigrations (originally from Spain) via Italy in the 17th and 18th centuries.</p><br>
<p>In late March 1944, under Nazi German occupation during World War II, 763 Kastorian Jews were taken prisoner by Nazi troops and sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau, as part of a program of deliberate extermination of Jews during the Holocaust. Kastoria was liberated by the guerrillas of the Greek People&#39;s Liberation Army less than 4 months after the Jewish citizens were forced to the concentration camps. By the end of the war in 1945, only 35 of the original population had survived, the vast majority of the community having been killed in concentration camps.</p><br>
<p>In 2016, a special documentary titled "" was released with never before seen footage has been created by executive producer and director Lawrence Russo (based on his parents story) and co-director and producer Larry Confino.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Kastoria is an international centre of fur trade, which dominates the local economy. Indeed, (as mentioned above) the town was possibly named after one of the former staples of the trade – the European beaver (kastóri in Greek), now extinct in the area. Trading in mink fur now predominates and every year an international showcase of fur takes place in the city. Fur trade is the biggest factor of Kastoria economy and it started back to the 14th century, now there are more than 300 small and big fabrics of fur in the city. Other industries include the sale and distribution of locally grown produce, particularly wheat, apples, wine and fish. Recently a large shopping center has been built in the city of Kastoria. Kastoria has 16 local radio stations, 2 TV stations, 5 daily newspapers and 7 weekly ones. The town&#39;s airport is named Aristotelis Airport.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks</h2><br>
<h3>Religious Sites</h3><br>
<p>Kastoria is an important religious centre for the Greek Orthodox Church and is the seat of a metropolitan bishop. It originally had 72 Byzantine and medieval churches, of which 54 have survived, including St Athanasius of Mouzaki. Some of these have been restored and provide useful insight into trends in Late Byzantine styles of architecture and fresco painting.</p><br>
<p>Kastoria used to have two Bektashi tekkes and three Bektashi turbes. The first was situated at the entrance to the town on the road from Florina and was said to be particularly "ancient" and important. It&#39;s chief saint, buried there, was a man named "Kasim Baba" who is said to have lived during the time of Turkish conquest and, according to folk history was a "posthumous miracle worker" and converted many local Christians by causing a huge rock to crash into the local church. However this tekke was suppressed under a Sunni crackdown in the 19th century. Another notable tekke was located near the barracks, and contained a turbe with the grave of a local notable Sandjakdar Ali Baba. There was also a turbe on the outskirts of the gypsy quarter to Aydin Baba.</p><br>
<h3>Museums</h3><br>
<p>The Museum of Byzantine History located on Dexamenis Square houses many examples of Byzantine iconography. The Costume Museum and the Monuments Museum are also located in the city. In the village of Kastanofyto lies the Folklore Museum (Kastanofyto), which preserves folk traditions from the local area.</p><br>
<p>Kastoria is filled with old manors dating to the Ottoman period, while parts of the old Byzantine walls also stand.</p><br>
<h3>Bridges</h3><br>
<p>Stone bridges are an important part of the traditional architecture of Kastoria. The best known is the bridge of Zouzouli, the bridge of Koromilia, the Koutsoumpli bridge and the bridge in Beriki.</p><br>
<p>The Bridge of Zouzouli, located in a remote area on the southern tip of the prefecture of Kastoria, is built over the waters of the stream of Zouzouli and connects mt. Smolikas with mt. Voios. It is arched, has a length of 25 meters and a height of 7 meters. Constructed in 1880 by artisans coming from Konitsa. The construction was financed from either a man, in memory of his brother who drowned in the river, or from a ruler who, moved by the drowning of a little girl, wanted to build the bridge.</p><br>
<p>The bridge of Koutsoumpli is located between the mountains of Voio and Smolikas, over the river of Zouzouli and it previously connected the villages of Eptachori and Zouzouli. Its arch is 14 meters wide, 8 meters high and it has a total length of 33 meters and a width of 2.40 meters.</p><br>
<p>The bridge in Beriki has a very thin arch and a great height. It was manufactured by master builder Sdrolios, who came from the village of Ntempeni (now Dendrochori), probably in 1866. Next to the bridge there was possibly a watermill and an inn. Probably, this is where the name of the region came from (inn Beriki).</p><br>
<p>The bridge of Koromilia is built over the Ladopotamos river and it used to connected the village of Koromilia with the one of Dendrochori. It is arched and has a length of 26 meters, a width of 2.80 meters, a height of 7 meters and an arch opening of 16 meters. It was built in 1865 and consists of limestone and schist slate.</p><br>
<h2>Cuisine</h2><br>
<p>Local specialities include:</p><br>
<p>Giouvetsi</p><br>
<p>Grivadi soup</p><br>
<p>Pumpkin Pie</p><br>
<p>Onion Pie</p><br>
<p>Milk Pie (dessert)</p><br>
<p>Saliaroi (dessert)</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>Kastoria FC is the towns football team. It was established in 1963 when three local sides joined to form one stronger team representing the town. The teams most successful years to date were 1974 when it was promoted to the Greek first division and competed there for a year, and then 1980 when it won the Greek Cup after an impressive 5-2 victory over Iraklis FC in the final. The team are hoping to return to the first division this year as they are currently competing for the second division (Beta Ethniki) title.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Tobiah ben Eliezer (11th), author of the Midrash Lekach Tov</p><br>
<p>Şefik Aker (1877–1964), military officer in the Ottoman and Turkish armies</p><br>
<p>Athanasios Christopoulos (1772–1847), poet</p><br>
<p>Vasileios Hatzis, painter</p><br>
<p>Dimitris Diamantidis (1980–), basketball player</p><br>
<p>Christina Giazitzidou (1989–), Olympic bronze medalist in rowing</p><br>
<p>Jagnula Kunovska (1943–), politician, jurist and writer</p><br>
<p>Nicholas Lambrinides, founder of Skyline Chili, a famous restaurant chain in Cincinnati, USA</p><br>
<p>Qazim Baba, 15th century Muslim bektashi holy man.</p><br>
<p>Sevastos Leontiadis (1690–1765), educationalist</p><br>
<p>Lucas Samaras (1936–), artist</p><br>
<p>Maria Spiropulu (1970–), experimental physicist</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns — sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Kastoria is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Kiev, Ukraine since 1998.</p><br>
<p>Plovdiv, Bulgaria since 2005.</p><br>
<p>Kozani  is a town in northern Greece, capital of Kozani regional unit and of West Macedonia region. It is located in the western part of Macedonia, in the northern part of the Aliakmonas river valley. The city lies 710 m above sea level, 15 km northwest of the artificial lake Polyfytos, 120 km south-west of Thessaloniki, between the mountains Pieria, Vermio, Vourinos and Askio. The population of the Kozani municipality is over 70,000 people. The climate of the area is continental with cold and dry winters, and hot summers.</p><br>
<p>Kozani is the home of the Technological Educational Institute of Western Macedonia and the University of Western Macedonia, with about 15,000 students from all over Greece and other places. It is also the seat of West Macedonia&#39;s court of appeal, police department, fire brigade, the seat of the 1st Army Corps of the Hellenic Army and of the Bishop of Servia and Kozani.</p><br>
<p>One of the most important aspects of local folklore is Kozani&#39;s carnival at the end of the winter, which retains much of the profanity of the ancient Dionysiac cult. Kozani is renowned in Greece and abroad for the production of Saffron (Krokos Kozanis), in the nearby town of Krokos.</p><br>
<p>Kozani is a transport node between Central Macedonia, Thessaly and Epirus. The nearest airport is Filippos Airport, 4 km from the city, IATA code: KZI. The airport was first opened in the mid-20th century. Kozani is situated near the Egnatia Highway, which connects the coast of the Ionian Sea with Thessaloniki and Turkish borders.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>According to prevailing opinion in Greece, the name comes from the village of Epirus Kósdiani, the origin of settlers of Kozani in 1392. The settlement was first named Kózdiani, which then, it was changed into Kóziani, and in the end into Kozáni.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>Antiquities from the prehistoric to the Byzantine period have been unearthed in many sectors of the city. In the east part of Kozani, an ancient necropolis has been found, dating to the early Iron Age. During Philip II of Macedon&#39;s reign, the region was named Elimeia, which was part of Upper Macedonia and probably in the same place there was a town named Tyrissa. In the south-west of the modern city, on Siopoto hill, there was a settlement named Kalyvia, between 1100 and 1300, traces of which are still preserved.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>Kozani was probably founded by Christian settlers who, after the Ottoman conquest, withdrew from the plains of Macedonia into the mountains, during the 14th and 15th centuries. Its secure position soon attracted other Christians expelled from Epirus, in 1392. Together with the settlers from Epirus, many cattle-breeders moved in the region.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded mention of Kozani is in an Ottoman register of 1528, as a settlement with 91 houses, 23 singles and 15 widows. One of the most important colonizers of Kozani was the chief shepherd Ioannis Trantas, who settled about 100 families. His son, Charisios Trantas, managed to obtain a Sultans firman in 1664, according to the terms of which the town came under the protection of the Sultans mother, was endowed with many privileges, and became forbidden for the Turks to settle in.</p><br>
<p>In 1664, the magnificent church of Agios Nikolaos was built. In 1668, the library and the famous school of Kozani were founded. During the 17th and 18th century, commercial relations with the countries of central Europe gave the opportunity for the city to flourish economically. During the 19th century, as foreign travellers relate, the population of the town was Greek, and was growing (Leake 1835:305 and Bouè 1854:87).</p><br>
<p>The towns growth was disrupted in 1770, because of conflict that erupted between Kozanis local inhabitants and Kozanite merchants in central Europe, who contributed to the town&#39;s prosperity; even more catastrophically, the city was pillaged by Turkish beys in 1770. A subsequent incursion by Aslan bey, in 1830, ravaged the city immensely. In 1855 next to St. Nicholas Church a 26 meters high bell tower was built, which would become the symbol of the city. In 1939, a clock was added to the top of the tower, donated by Greek American Konstantinos Mamatsios. According to the 1904 population census, 12,000 Greeks and 350 Vlachs were living in Kozani at the time.</p><br>
<p>In the late 19th and early 20th century, Kozani was part of the Manastir Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire.</p><br>
<h3>Balkan wars</h3><br>
<p>The Greek army entered Kozani on 11 October 1912, during the First Balkan War, after its victory against the Ottoman army in the Battle of Sarantaporo. By this time, the population of the town was 12,000 Orthodox Greeks. In 1923, during the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, about 1,400 Greek families from Pontus and Asia Minor were settled in Kozani.</p><br>
<h3>Modern times</h3><br>
<p>In the 20th century, the city grew tremendously, as lignite reserves in the area started being used by Public Power Corporation, making Kozani the foremost producer of electrical power in Greece. An earthquake that occurred in the region on 13 May 1995, with a magnitude of 6.6 on the Richter scale caused only property damage.</p><br>
<p>The city now combines modern with old faries architecture. Some magnificent buildings are the clock tower, the tow hall, the folklore museum, the "Valtadoreio" Gymnasium, the National Bank of Greece building, the "Ermioneion" Hotel and the mansions of Georgios Lassanis and Grigorios Vourkas. The Municipal Library of Kozani called "Kovendareios" is the second biggest in Greece, and it has 150,000 books, rare publications, valuable documents, and one of the rare copies of Rigas Feraios&#39; charter. For this reason Kozani was included in the National Cultural Network of Cities with object the promotion of the Book and Reading. The Institute of Book and Reading was established and Kozani is now known as City of Books. Today Kozani is the administrative, commercial, economic, and transport centre of the region of West Macedonia.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The city is mostly known for its important contribution to the Greek electricity supply, and a large part of the population works in the Public Power Corporation&#39;s Agios Dimitrios Power Plant, the largest power plant in Greece. The Ptolemaida Basin hosts the Western Macedonia Lignite Center, which is accountable for the production of 40% of the electric energy of the country.</p><br>
<p>Other famous products are marble, Saffron, (Krokos Kozanis), fruits, local wines and specialized arts and crafts industry. The Commercial Exhibition of Kozani takes part in the Exhibition Centre of West Macedonia in Koila Kozanis every September. Many firms from Greece and other Balkan countries participate, especially with local products.</p><br>
<p>While Kozani remains a regional banking center, the Kozani-based Co-operative Bank of Western Macedonia however failed the stress test conducted by the Bank of Greece and subsequently was liquidated in December 2013.</p><br>
<h2>Sites of interest</h2><br>
<h3>Downtown sites of interest</h3><br>
<p>The Archaeological Museum of Kozani</p><br>
<p>The Historical–Folklore and Natural History Museum of Kozani is a place worth visiting. It is built according to old Macedonian architecture, and in its 6 floors, visitors can see everything about the geography, natural history, flora and animals of the region, as well as the history, the traditions and the past way of life in Kozani.</p><br>
<p>The Museum of Modern Local History of Kozani</p><br>
<p>The clock tower and the church of Agios Nikolaos - 350 years old - in Nikis Square.</p><br>
<p>Other attractions include the Grigorios Vourkas Mansion and the Georgios Lassanis Mansion. The second one lies in a central square, named Lassani Square and it is used as the.</p><br>
<h3>Nearby sites of interest</h3><br>
<p>The Municipal Park Kouri located in Agios Dimitrios where you can see the Cultural Center and the Municipal Theatre of Kozani, and the hill of Xenia with the nice view of all the city</p><br>
<p>The Museum of the Macedonian Struggle in Chromio, a museum dedicated to the history of the Macedonian Struggle.</p><br>
<p>Lake Polyfytos Bridge crossing the artificial Polyfytos Lake. With a length of 1,372 m, it is the second longest bridge in Greece next to the Rio–Antirrio bridge.</p><br>
<h2>Mass media</h2><br>
<p>There are some telecommunications companies, TV and radio stations, newspapers, magazines, and web portals based in Kozani. The television channels are West Channel, TOP Channel and Flash TV. Top-circulation newspapers include Chronos, Grammi, Tharros and others.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Kozani is accessed with Motorway Egnatia (or GR-2, or E90) from Ioannina and Thessaloniki, GR-3 (or E65) from Larissa and Florina, GR-4 and GR-20.</p><br>
<p>By bus, () for all West Macedonian towns and for the biggest Greek cities Athens (4 times/day - 470 km), Thessaloniki (every hour - 120 km), Larisa (120 km), Volos, Ioannina (160 km), Patras.</p><br>
<p>By aeroplane (Sky Express), the city is connected with Athens and Kastoria from Filippos Airport which lies 3 km south-east of Kozani.</p><br>
<p>By railway (OSE) to Thessaloniki (Railway Line Kozani - Amyntaio).</p><br>
<p>The public transit in the city is provided by minibuses, and between the centre and the municipal departments, it is provided by Transit buses. The traffic problems of the city have become more severe during the last few years.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>The municipality Kozani was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 5 former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>The total population is 71,388 (2011). It is developing into a nodal town of the Western Balkans, with areas and activities of a wider regional nature. Within this context, the municipality of Kozani is creating a modern satellite town, the Kozani Zone of Alternate Urban Planning (ZEP). The Municipal Corporation of alternate planning and development of Kozani S.A.(DEPEPOK) was established in order to implement the projects of the ZEP.</p><br>
<p>The ZEP is strategically located on 50 ha south-west of Kozani, and aims to become a model development centre, attracting an urban population and economic activities from throughout Western Macedonia in Greece and the Western Balkans.</p><br>
<p>Other known neighborhoods of Kozani are Sk&#39;rka, Ipirotika, Gitia, Agios Athanasios, Platania.</p><br>
<h3>Province</h3><br>
<p>The province of Kozani (Επαρχία Κοζάνης) was one of the provinces of the Kozani Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipalities Kozani (except a few villages that were part of the Eordaia province) and Servia-Velventos. It was abolished in 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Under the Köppen climate classification, Kozani has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa), with considerable hot-summer continental climate (Dfa) influences. Rainfall is spread evenly throughout the year.</p><br>
<p>The climate of Kozani has changed over the years as a result of the environmental degradation brought by the extensive lignite mining in the area. The lignite mine is one of the largest in Eastern Europe; due to the constant expansion of the mining activities in the area several communities have already been moved closer to city of Kozani and more are scheduled to be moved by 2020. Given that the main source of income for the city of Kozani is the lignite mine and the thermal power station in the area local residents are often biased about the environmental catastrophe brought on by these activities.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>There are 18 Primary schools in Kozani, and another 8, in the municipal departments of Vatero, Kariditsa, Koila, Lefkovrysi, Lefkopigi, Nea Charavgi, Xirolimni and Petrana. The Gymnasiums of the city are 8, and there are two more in the municipal departments of Lefkopigi and Xirolimni. There are also 4 Lyceums, 4 Technical Schools (TEE), some Business Schools and one municipal Odeum.</p><br>
<p>Kozani is the home of the Technological Educational Institute of Western Macedonia - one of the biggest in Greece (founded on 1976). Three of its Faculties are in the city - the Faculty of Administration and Economy, Technological Applications and Health. (The rest of them are in other places of West Macedonia). The seat of the University of Western Macedonia and its Faculty of Engineering, they are also in Kozani. The University was founded in 2002.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Festivals and events</h3><br>
<p>Kozani carnival is one of the most important events in the region, taking place the end of the winter. The most interesting local celebration during the carnival are the Fanoi (great bonfires), which are lit in the squares of Kozani. Around them, people sing and dance mainly scoptic songs and local dances, such as the best known song in the region - the Enteka of Kozani, often called Kozani&#39;s "national anthem". All celebrations become more exciting on the Sunday of the last week, after the carnival parade, when bonfires are lit all over the town which burn until the early morning hours.</p><br>
<p>At the end of summer Lassaneia Events are organised. They consist of theatrical representations, concerts, athletic events etc. The name "Lassaneia" comes from Georgios Lassanis, who was from Kozani and participated in the Greek War of Independence. A part of those events is also the new authors song festival "Nikolas Asimos".</p><br>
<p>Niaimeros is a fair in the north of the city in the Niaimeros place. It takes place on the first Tuesday of October. It used to last 9 days (niaimeros=nine days), but now it lasts only 3 days.</p><br>
<p>Official local public holidays are the celebration for the liberation of the city from the Turks on 11 October and Saint Nicolas day - Kozani&#39;s patron - on 6 December.</p><br>
<p>The municipal Band is named Pandora. It was founded in 1902, and it takes part in all the events and celebrations.</p><br>
<h3>Cuisine</h3><br>
<p>A typical dish in Kozani is the so-called Giaprakia. The main ingredients are meat and rice in salty carbage-leaf, having the shape of an egg. It is used often as Christmas food. Kichi (Kozanitiko kichi) is called another local dish, which is actually a cheese pie with circular-snail form.</p><br>
<h3>Notable people</h3><br>
<p>Ioannis Amanatidis, (1981–present) footballer</p><br>
<p>Nikolas Asimos, (1949–1988) composer and singer</p><br>
<p>Elias Atmatsidis, (1969–present)Football goalkeeper</p><br>
<p>Evripidis Bakirtzis, (1895–1947), politician</p><br>
<p>Anna Diamantopoulou, (1959–present) politician, former EU Commissioner, for Employment and Social Affairs, in the Prodi Commission</p><br>
<p>Foulidis Eleftherios, Iconographer</p><br>
<p>Georgios Lassanis, (1793–1870) scholar and politician</p><br>
<p>Michalis Papakonstantinou, (1919–2010), author and Minister for Foreign Affairs (1992–1993)</p><br>
<p>Giorgos Papakonstantinou, Minister for Finance of Greece</p><br>
<p>Georgios Parakeimenos, educator</p><br>
<p>Georgios Sakellarios, (1765–1838) educator</p><br>
<p>Ieroklis Stoltidis, (1975–present) footballer</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Topalidis, (1962–present), former Greek football player, assistant manager of the Greek national football team.</p><br>
<p>Chrisanthos Theodoridis, (1934–2005) singer-songwriter, was born in Kozani</p><br>
<h3>Sports</h3><br>
<p>Kozani FC (Greek Third Division - 1st group)</p><br>
<p>Lassanis Kozanis BC</p><br>
<p>G.S. Κozanis, volleyball, gskozanis.gr</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns – sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Kozani is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Bristol, Connecticut, USA, since November 2, 1987</p><br>
<p>Iaşi, Romania</p><br>
<p>Toluca, Mexico</p><br>
<p>Turgovishte, Bulgaria, since 2002</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Omni Bedford Springs Resort is a resort hotel outside of Bedford, Pennsylvania. Established in 1806, it is one of last and best-preserved of 19th-century resort hotels based around mineral springs. The hotel was documented in 2005 by the Historic American Buildings Survey . Omni Bedford Springs Resort & Spa is a member of Historic Hotels of America, the official program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation. The resort is part of the Omni Hotels & Resorts brand, based out of Dallas, Texas. A portion of the resort property, including the hotel, golf course, and spring areas, was designated a National Historic Landmark District in 1984.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1796, Nicholas Shauffler discovered a high mineral content in the natural freshwater springs located on the property of Fredrick Naugel, outside of Bedford, Pennsylvania. These springs were reputed to have &#39;healing powers" by the Native Americans who had come to this spot to drink from and bathe in the waters for centuries. Doctor John Anderson, then practicing in the town of Bedford, purchased the land containing the springs in 1798 and proceeded to build bathing facilities for his patients; thus starting the tradition of people traveling to experience the waters of the Bedford springs and setting the foundation for what is today Bedford Springs Resort, an upscale destination, located just off the Pennsylvania Turnpike.</p><br>
<p>The popularity and reputation of the Dr. Anderson&#39;s treatments grew throughout the early 19th Century and by 1809, there were three buildings on the site, including The Stone House, Crockford and a precursor to the Evitt House. According to a travelogue by Joshua Galpin in 1809, these buildings included a "large frame lodging house and several smaller ones for families – warm and cold baths and a billiard room." In 1824, Bedford Springs was hailed as the "Montpelier of America" in a column in the July edition of the National Gazette & Library Register, which noted with praise the waters, accommodations, activities, food and wine. The popularity of the resort benefited from the emphasis on outdoor life in the mid-nineteenth century as east coast American cities became increasingly industrialized and polluted, and from the establishment of stops in Bedford for the B&O and Pennsylvania Railroads beginning in 1872, providing easy accessibility from cities such as Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, and New York City.</p><br>
<p>Bedford Springs became an attraction for politicians, and, in addition to serving as the "Summer White House" for President James Buchanan from 1857 to 1861, also served as a getaway and meeting place for other presidents such as William Henry Harrison, James K. Polk and Zachary Taylor, as well as a multitude of senators and congressmen, and their families. The first transatlantic cable sent from England to the United States was received by President Buchanan at the hotel on August 12, 1858.</p><br>
<p>The decades of the 1870s through the 1890s, the "golden age" of Americas grand resorts, saw the "resort gold standard" set at Bedford Springs. A series of colorful spring houses, bridges, and gates dotted the expansive grounds, and a "serpentine trail" led party excursions from one spring to the next. In the beginning of the 20th century, as medicine and health-awareness advanced, the validity of the Springs healing powers decreased slightly, but the hotel still flourished, and in 1905, a major renovation of the complex included a monumental double-decked colonnade, which connected the hotels main dining room to a columned pavilion at the Magnesia Springs across Shobers Run, as well as a new building with a spring-fed indoor pool, reportedly the first such facility in the United States at the time it was built.</p><br>
<p>In the 1930s, the hotel&#39;s resident physician, Dr. William E. Fitch, established the "Bedford Cure," a health regimen that required a three-week stay at the resort, which still operated successfully throughout the 1930s and 1940s. During World War II, the hotel and its grounds were used by the USA Navy as the Naval Training School (Radio) and then later as a detention center for interned Japanese diplomats.</p><br>
<p>The decade of the 1950s saw numerous improvements and renovations to the property, including the installation of modern environmental controls and sprinkler systems. Bedford Springs was also open year-round for the first time in 1950. The hotel continued to operate for the next three decades, highlighted by then California Governor Ronald Reagan&#39;s stay in 1975, making him the seventh current, former or future president to spend time at Bedford Springs. However tastes in leisure travel had changed significantly over the years and the property eventually shut its doors in 1986. Two years later, a flash flood severely damaged several buildings at Bedford Springs and the site fell into disrepair. Even so, the site was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. Then in 1998, the property was purchased by Bedford Resort Partners Limited for $8 million and the massive undertaking of restoring Bedford Springs to its former prestige began.</p><br>
<h2>The springs</h2><br>
<p>The Bedford Springs were believed to have various and diverse medicinal values due to each springs unique mix of minerals. The "Bedford Cure" required the patient to imbibe each type of water (or a specific type of water depending on the individuals ailment) on a daily basis during their three-week stay. Examples of the unique springs and their uses are "Magnesium Spring," used for stomach ailments, the "Iron Spring," which was prescribed for iron deficiencies and healthy bones, the "Black Spring" which was used primarily to irrigate the golf course; and the "Sweet Spring" the waters of which were the most palatable. An eighth spring, named the Eternal Spring was discovered in 2006, during the expansion and renovation of the resort.</p><br>
<h2>The restored resort</h2><br>
<p>The hotel re-opened for overnight guests on July 12, 2007. The hotel buildings were completely restored and renovated, and additional wings added. In January 2009, the resort was purchased by Omni Hotels, a luxury hotel brand that operates properties across the United States, Canada, and Mexico. The new resort is a 216-room hotel with 4 suites, golf course, spa, and conference facility. The spa wing accommodates additional rooms and a full-service spa. The hotel contains a 130-seat restaurant along with a fully restored colonial-style tavern in the Stone House, with original, massive stone walls and beams dating to 1806.</p><br>
<p>The revitalized resort also contains a new outdoor pool, a complete restoration of the original, mineral spring-fed indoor pool, and a kids club. The resort offers outdoor activities including hiking, bicycling, off-road Segways, UTVs, cross-country skiing, fly fishing, river rafting, carriage rides, and day excursions to many of Bedford&#39;s famous historic sites and beautiful covered bridges.</p><br>
<h2>Golf course</h2><br>
<p>The resort&#39;s golf course was originally designed by Spencer Oldham in 1895 and is one of the oldest courses in the United States. In 1901, head professional Charles Thorn worked to improve the course by rebuilding greens and tee boxes and installing an irrigation system using the natural springs found in the area as a water source. In 1912, A.W. Tillinghast redesigned the course bringing it down to 9 holes. In 1923, Donald Ross redesigned the course again and brought it back to 18 holes. During the resorts extensive restoration, the golf course was brought back to the design that Donald Ross created in 1923.</p><br>
<p>As part of the resorts relaunch, an extensive renovation of the Tillinghast/Ross course was undertaken. The historical course had suffered over time from sediment filling in the margins of the waterways, and from "modern" approaches to landscape in the 1950s, which tried to "tidy-up" the creek edges with a "mown-lawn" approach. The renovation of the course, renamed the Bedford Springs Old Course, restored the natural spring bed with native grasses and other natural materials indigenous to the flood plain. Befitting the courses siting next to Shobers Run, there are water features apparent at nearly every hole.</p><br>
<h2>The spa</h2><br>
<p>Fed by the recently discovered eighth spring, the Springs Eternal Spa is a 30,000 ft&sup2; spa and salon that pays homage to what has historically made Bedford Springs such an alluring destination. The spa&#39;s signature treatment, called The Bedford Baths, is a ritual of immersing the body alternatively in hot and cool pools and soaking in herb-infused steam from the mineral-rich springs.</p><br>
<p>The Old State House, also known as the Arkansas State House is the oldest surviving state capitol building west of the Mississippi River. It was the site of Arkansas&#39;s May, 1861 secession debate, as well as the 1868 Constitutional Convention when delegates agreed to ensure voting rights for freedmen and to establish public schools. It is now the home of the Old State House Museum.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Commissioned by Territorial Governor John Pope, the Old State House was constructed between 1836 and 1842. Architect Gideon Shryock, who previously designed the Kentucky State Capitol in Frankfort, chose a Greek Revival style for the building. The original design was too expensive for the territory, so Shryock&#39;s assistant George Weigart changed the plans and oversaw construction.</p><br>
<p>Both houses of the Arkansas General Assembly moved into the building while construction was ongoing. On December 4, 1837, in the first session of the General Assembly, Speaker of the House of Representatives John Wilson killed Representative Major J.J. Anthony in a knife fight on the floor of the House.</p><br>
<p>Unionists prevailed at an initial, March, 1861 secession convention after the election of President Lincoln. However, after South Carolina fired on Fort Sumter and President Lincoln called up troops, on the morning of May 6, 1861 a second convention assembled at the Old State House. After debate, the ordinance for secession passed with five opposing votes. Four opposing delegates relented after unanimity was urged. Isaac Murphy, the delegate from Madison County (and future governor), held out despite enormous pressure.</p><br>
<p>During the American Civil War the building was used by Union troops occupying Little Rock. After the war ended, in January, 1868 the Old State House was the site of a constitutional convention to determine whether Arkansas would accept the 14th Amendment, permit suffrage for black males over 21, and create public schools for both black and white children. After contentious debate these proposals were approved in a new constitution that emerged that February, and was ratified in March. Also during Reconstruction the building was an object of contention in the so-called Brooks–Baxter War and was fortified during that struggle. The "Lady Baxter" cannon still remains on the grounds.</p><br>
<p>The building was used as the official state capitol until the new capitol building was constructed in 1912. For a time the building was used as a medical school.</p><br>
<p>The Old State House was renamed as the Arkansas War Memorial and was used as an office building for federal and state agencies as well as a meeting place for patriotic organizations.</p><br>
<p>In 1947 the General Assembly approved acts designating the Old State House as a museum. The museum front entrance was the site of President Bill Clinton&#39;s presidential campaign announcement and the site of his election night celebrations in both of his campaigns for the presidency. The building underwent major renovation in 1996.</p><br>
<p>It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1997.</p><br>
<p>The building continues to serve as a museum with exhibits related to Arkansas history and culture. Permanent collections include Civil War battle flags, the inaugural gowns of the First Ladies of Arkansas, Arkansas art pottery, and African-American quilts. Special exhibits are staged periodically as well.</p><br>
<p>Epidaurus  was a small city  in ancient Greece, on the Argolid Peninsula at the Saronic Gulf. Two modern towns bear the name Epidavros : Palaia Epidavros and Nea Epidavros. Since 2010 they belong to the new municipality of Epidaurus, part of the regional unit of Argolis. The seat of the municipality is the town Lygourio.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Epidaurus was independent of Argos and not included in Argolis until the time of the Romans. With its supporting territory, it formed the small territory called Epidauria. Reputed to be founded by or named for the Argolid Epidaurus, and to be the birthplace of Apollo&#39;s son Asclepius the healer, Epidaurus was known for its sanctuary situated about five miles (8 km) from the town, as well as its theater, which is once again in use today. The cult of Asclepius at Epidaurus is attested in the 6th century BC, when the older hill-top sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas was no longer spacious enough.</p><br>
<p>The asclepeion at Epidaurus was the most celebrated healing center of the Classical world, the place where ill people went in the hope of being cured. To find out the right cure for their ailments, they spent a night in the enkoimeteria, a big sleeping hall. In their dreams, the god himself would advise them what they had to do to regain their health. Within the sanctuary there was a guest house with 160 guestrooms. There are also mineral springs in the vicinity, which may have been used in healing.</p><br>
<p>Asclepius, the most important healer god of antiquity, brought prosperity to the sanctuary, which in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC embarked on an ambitious building program for enlarging and reconstruction of monumental buildings. Fame and prosperity continued throughout the Hellenistic period. After the destruction of Corinth in 146 BC Lucius Mummius visited the sanctuary and left two dedications there. In 87 BC the sanctuary was looted by the Roman general Sulla. In 74 BC a Roman garrison under Marcus Antonius Creticus had been installed in the city causing a lack of grain. Still, before 67 BC the sanctuary was plundered by pirates. In the 2nd century AD the sanctuary enjoyed a new upsurge under the Romans, but in AD 395 the Goths raided the sanctuary.</p><br>
<p>Even after the introduction of Christianity and the silencing of the oracles, the sanctuary at Epidaurus was still known as late as the mid 5th century, although as a Christian healing center.</p><br>
<h2>Theatre</h2><br>
<p>The prosperity brought by the asclepeion enabled Epidaurus to construct civic monuments, including the huge theatre that delighted Pausanias for its symmetry and beauty, used again today for dramatic performances, the ceremonial hestiatoreion (banqueting hall), and a palaestra. The ancient theatre of Epidaurus was designed by Polykleitos the Younger in the 4th century BC. The original 34 rows were extended in Roman times by another 21 rows. As is usual for Greek theatres (and as opposed to Roman ones), the view on a lush landscape behind the skênê is an integral part of the theatre itself and is not to be obscured. It seats up to 14,000 people.</p><br>
<p>The theatre is admired for its exceptional acoustics, which permit almost perfect intelligibility of unamplified spoken words from the proscenium or skēnē to all 14,000 spectators, regardless of their seating (see Ref., in Greek). Famously, tour guides have their groups scattered in the stands and show them how they can easily hear the sound of a match struck at center-stage. A 2007 study by Nico F. Declercq and Cindy Dekeyser of the Georgia Institute of Technology indicates that the astonishing acoustic properties may be the result of the advanced design: the rows of limestone seats filter out low-frequency sounds, such as the murmur of the crowd, and also amplify the high-frequency sounds of the stage.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The municipality Epidavros was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 2 former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Asklipieio</p><br>
<p>Epidavros</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 340.442 km, the municipal unit 160.604 km.</p><br>
<p>Lanzarote is a Spanish island, the easternmost of the autonomous Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It is located approximately 125 km off the coast of Africa and 1,000 km from the Iberian Peninsula. Covering 845.94 km&sup2, Lanzarote is the fourth-largest of the islands in the archipelago. With 141,938 inhabitants, it is the third-most populous Canary Island, after Tenerife and Gran Canaria. In the centre-west of the island is Timanfaya National Park, one of its main attractions. The capital is Arrecife.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded name for the island, given by Italian-Majorcan cartographer Angelino Dulcert, was Insula de Lanzarotus Marocelus, after the Genoese navigator Lancelotto Malocello, from which the modern name is derived. The islands name in the native language was Tyterogaka or Tytheroygaka, which may mean "one that is all ochre" (referring to the islands predominant colour).</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Lanzarote is located 11 km north-east of Fuerteventura and just over 1 km from Graciosa. The dimensions of the island are 60 km from north to south and 25 km from west to east. Lanzarote has 213 km of coastline, of which 10 km are sand, 16.5 km are beach, and the remainder is rocky. Its landscape includes the mountain ranges of Famara (671 metres or 2,201 feet) in the north and Ajaches (608 m) to the south. South of the Famara massif is the El Jable desert, which separates Famara and Montañas del Fuego. The highest peak is Peñas del Chache, rising to 670 m above sea level. The "Tunnel of Atlantis", the largest underwater volcanic tunnel in the world, is part of the Cueva de los Verdes lava tube.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Often called the "Island of Eternal Spring", Lanzarote has a subtropical-desert climate according to the Köppen climatic classification. The small amount of precipitation is mainly concentrated in the winter. Rainfall during summer is a rare phenomenon and several summers are completely dry without any precipitation. On average the island receives approximately 16 days of precipitation between December and February. Sometimes, the hot sirocco wind prevails, causing dry and dusty conditions across the island. Average precipitation in June and August is less than 0.5 mm. It closely borders on a tropical climate, with winter means of 18 &deg;C and summer means of 25 &deg;C.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Lanzarote is the easternmost island of the Canary Islands and has a volcanic origin. It was born through fiery eruptions and has solidified lava streams as well as extravagant rock formations. The island emerged about 15 million years ago as product of the Canary hotspot. The island, along with others, emerged after the breakup of the African and the American continental plates. The greatest recorded eruptions occurred between 1730 and 1736 in the area now designated Timanfaya National Park.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The island has an international airport, Arrecife Airport, through which 5,438,178 passengers travelled in 2008. Tourism has been the mainstay of the island&#39;s economy for over 40 years, the only other industry being agriculture.</p><br>
<p>Lanzarote is part of the province of Las Palmas, and is divided into seven municipalities:</p><br>
<p>Arrecife</p><br>
<p>Haría</p><br>
<p>San Bartolomé</p><br>
<p>Teguise (includes Isla de La Graciosa and four smaller islets, including Alegranza)</p><br>
<p>Tías</p><br>
<p>Tinajo</p><br>
<p>Yaiza</p><br>
<h2>Biodiversity</h2><br>
<h3>Plants</h3><br>
<p>There are five hundred different kinds of plants on the island, of which 17 species are endemic. These plants have adapted to the relative scarcity of water in the same way as succulents. They include the Canary Island date palm (Phoenix canariensis), which is found in damper areas of the north, the Canary Island pine (Pinus canariensis), ferns, and wild olive trees (Olea europaea). Laurisilva trees, which once covered the highest parts of Risco de Famara, are rarely found today. After winter rainfall, the vegetation comes to a colourful bloom between February and March.</p><br>
<p>The vineyards of La Gería, Lanzarote DO wine region, are a protected area. Single vines are planted in pits 4 - wide and 2 - deep, with small stone walls around each pit. This agricultural technique is designed to harvest rainfall and overnight dew and to protect the plants from the winds.</p><br>
<h3>Fungi</h3><br>
<p>There are 180 different species of lichen-forming fungi. These survive in the suitable areas like rock surfaces, and promote weathering.</p><br>
<h3>Animals</h3><br>
<p>Apart from bats and other mammals which accompanied humans to the island (including the dromedary, which was used for agriculture and is now a tourist attraction), there are few vertebrate species on Lanzarote. These include birds (such as falcons) and reptiles. Some interesting endemic animals are the Gallotia lizards and the blind Munidopsis polymorpha crabs found in the Jameos del Agua lagoon, which was formed by a volcanic eruption. The island is also home to one of two surviving populations of the threatened Canarian Egyptian vulture.</p><br>
<h2>Natural symbols</h2><br>
<p>The official symbols from nature associated with Lanzarote are Munidopsis polymorpha (Blind crab) and Euphorbia balsamifera (Tabaiba dulce).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Lanzarote is believed to have been the first Canary Island to be settled. The Phoenicians may have settled there around 1100 BC, though no material evidence survives. Around 1000 BC, it was settled by the Majos, who remained there until their extinction by Spanish colonialism and the slave trade in the 14th century. The Greek writers and philosophers Herodotus, Plato, and Plutarch described the garden of the Hesperides, a mythic orchard which some like to identify with the Canaries. The first known record came from Roman author Pliny the Elder in the encyclopaedia Naturalis Historia on an expedition to the Canary Islands. The names of the islands (then called Insulae Fortunatae or the "Fortunate Isles") were recorded as Junonia (Fuerteventura), Canaria (Gran Canaria), Ninguaria (Tenerife), Junonia Major (La Palma), Pluvialia (El Hierro), and Capraria (La Gomera). Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, the two easternmost Canary Islands, were only mentioned as the archipelago of the "purple islands". The Roman poet Lucan and the Greek astronomer and geographer Ptolemy gave their precise locations. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Canary Islands were ignored until 999, when the Arabs arrived at the island which they dubbed al-Djezir al-Khalida (among other names).</p><br>
<p>In 1336, a ship arrived from Lisbon under the guidance of Genoese navigator Lancelotto Malocello, who used the alias "Lanzarote da Framqua". A fort was later built in the area of Montaña de Guanapay near today&#39;s Teguise. Castilian slaving expeditions in 1385 and 1393 seized hundreds of Guanches and sold them in Spain, initiating the slave trade in the islands. French explorer Jean de Béthencourt arrived in 1402, heading a private expedition under Castilian auspices. Bethencourt first visited the south of Lanzarote at Playas de Papagayo, and the French overran the island within a matter of months. The island lacked mountains and gorges to serve as hideouts for the remaining Guanche population, and so many Guanches were taken away as slaves that only 300 Guanche men were said to have remained.</p><br>
<p>At the southern end of the Yaiza municipality, the first European settlement in the Canary Islands appeared in 1402 in the area known as El Rubicón, where the conquest of the Archipelago began. In this place, the Cathedral of Saint Martial of Limoges was built. The cathedral was destroyed by English pirates in the 16th century. A diocese was moved in 1483 to Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Roman Catholic Diocese of Canarias). In 1585, the Ottoman admiral Murat Reis temporarily seized Lanzarote. In the 17th century, pirates raided the island and took 1,000 inhabitants into slavery in Cueva de los Verdes.</p><br>
<p>From 1730 to 1736, the island was hit by a series of volcanic eruptions, producing 32 new volcanoes in a stretch of 18 km. The priest of Yaiza, Don Andrés Lorenzo Curbelo, documented the eruption in detail until 1731. Lava covered a quarter of the island&#39;s surface, including the most fertile soil and 11 villages. 100 smaller volcanoes were located in the area called Montañas del Fuego, the "Mountains of Fire". In 1768, drought affected the deforested island, and winter rains did not fall. Much of the population was forced to emigrate to Cuba and the Americas, including a group which formed a significant addition to the Spanish settlers in Texas at San Antonio de Bexar in 1731. Another volcanic eruption occurred within the range of Tiagua in 1824, which was less violent than the major eruption between 1730 and 1736.</p><br>
<p>In 1927, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura became part of the province of Las Palmas. Several archaeological expeditions have uncovered the prehistoric settlement at the archaeologic site of El Bebedero in the village of Teguise. In one of those expeditions, by a team from the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and a team from the University of Zaragoza, yielded about 100 Roman potsherds, nine pieces of metal, and one piece of glass. The artefacts were found in strata dated between the 1st and 4th centuries. They show that Romans did trade with the Canarians, though there is no evidence of settlements.</p><br>
<p>The island has a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve protected site status. According to a report in the Financial Times, this status was endangered by a local corruption scandal. Since May 2009, police have arrested the former president of Lanzarote, the former mayor of Arrecife and more than 20 politicians and businessmen in connection with illegal building permits along Lanzarotes coastline. UNESCO has threatened to revoke Lanzarotes Biosphere Reserve status, "if the developments are not respecting local needs and are impacting on the environment". The President of the Cabildo of Lanzarote denied "any threat to Lanzarote&#39;s UNESCO status".</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Juan Leal (1676–1742/1743), Spanish settler and politician, born on the island</p><br>
<p>Juan Curbelo (1680–1760), Spanish politician, born on the island</p><br>
<p>Salvador Rodríguez (1688–unknown), Spanish politician, born on the island</p><br>
<p>José Clavijo y Fajardo (1726–1806), Spanish publicist, born on the island</p><br>
<p>Blas Cabrera Felipe (1878–1945), Spanish physicist, born on the island</p><br>
<p>César Manrique (1919–1992), Spanish artist, born and died on the island</p><br>
<p>José Saramago (1922–2010), Portuguese writer, resided and died on the island</p><br>
<p>Manuel Medina (born 1935), Spanish politician, born on the island</p><br>
<p>Rosana Arbelo (born 1963), Spanish singer, born on the island</p><br>
<p>Princess Alexia of Greece and Denmark (born 1965), Greek royalty, resides on the island</p><br>
<p>Goya Toledo (born 1969), Spanish actress and model, born on the island</p><br>
<p>Carlos Morales Quintana (born 1970), Spanish architect and husband of Princess Alexia, born and resides on the island</p><br>
<p>Jonathan Pérez Olivero (born 1982), Spanish footballer, born on the island</p><br>
<p>Patricia Díaz Perea (born 1984), Spanish triathlete, represents Lanzarote-based club Triatlón Titanes</p><br>
<p>Jordi Martín (born 1991), Spanish footballer, born on the island</p><br>
<h2>Festivals</h2><br>
<p>The most established festival on the island is held each year on 15 September in the village of Mancha Blanca, in honour of Our Lady of Sorrows (Virgen de los Dolores), also called the "Virgin of the Volcanoes" (the Patron Saint of Lanzarote). People from all over the island participate in this pilgrimage, mostly dressed in traditional costumes.</p><br>
<p>Valles Caldera  is a 13.7 mi wide volcanic caldera in the Jemez Mountains of northern New Mexico. Hot springs, streams, fumaroles, natural gas seeps and volcanic domes dot the caldera floor landscape. The highest point in the caldera is Redondo Peak, an 11,253 ft resurgent lava dome located entirely within the caldera. Also within the caldera are several grass valleys the largest of which is Valle Grande, the only one accessible by a paved road. Much of the caldera is within the Valles Caldera National Preserve, a unit of the National Park System.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Use of Valles Caldera dates back to the prehistoric times: spear points dating to 11,000 years ago have been discovered. Several Native American tribes frequented the caldera, often seasonally for hunting and for obsidian, used for spear and arrow points. Obsidian from the caldera was traded by tribes across much of the Southwest. Eventually, Spanish and later Mexican settlers as well as the Navajo and other tribes came to the caldera seasonally for grazing with periodic clashes and raids. Later as the United States acquired New Mexico as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, the caldera became the backdrop for the Indian wars with the U.S Army. Around the same time, the commercial use of the caldera for ranching, and its forest for logging began.</p><br>
<h3>Baca Ranch</h3><br>
<p>The caldera became part of the Baca Ranch in 1876. The Bacas were a wealthy family given the land as compensation for the termination of a grant given to their family near Las Vegas, in northeastern New Mexico. The family was given several other parcels by the US Government as well, including one in Arizona. This area, 100,000 acres, was called Baca Location number one. Since then, the land has been through a string of exchanges between private owners and business enterprises. Most notably, it was owned by Frank Bond in the 1930s. Mr. Bond, a businessman based in nearby Española, ran up to 30,000 sheep in the calderas, significantly overgrazing the land and causing damage from which the watersheds of the property are still recovering.</p><br>
<p>The land was purchased by the Dunigan family from Abilene, Texas in 1963. Pat Dunigan did not obtain the timber rights, however, and the New Mexico Lumber Company logged the property very heavily, leaving the land scarred with roads and removing significant amounts of old-growth douglas fir and ponderosa pine. Mr. Dunigan bought out the timber rights in the 1970s and slowed the logging. He negotiated unsuccessfully with the National Park Service and the US Forest Service for possible sale of the property in the 1980s.</p><br>
<h3>Valles Caldera National Preserve</h3><br>
<p>The Valles Caldera Preservation Act of 2000 signed by President Clinton on July 25, 2000, created the Valles Caldera National Preserve (VCNP). The legislation provided for the federal purchase of this historical ranch nestled inside a volcanic caldera, with funds coming from the Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF) derived from royalties the US government receives from offshore petroleum and natural gas drilling. The Dunigan family sold the entire surface estate of 95,000 acre and seven-eighths of the geothermal mineral estate to the federal government for $101 million. As some sites of the Baca Ranch are sacred and of cultural significance to the Native Americans, 5,000 acre of the purchase were obtained by the Santa Clara Pueblo, which borders the property to the northeast. This include the headwaters of Santa Clara Creek that is sacred to the pueblo. On the southwest corner of the land 300 acre were to be ceded to Bandelier National Monument.</p><br>
<h3>2011 wildfire</h3><br>
<p>In July 2011, the Las Conchas Fire started by a power line on nearby private land, burned 30,000 acre of the Valles Caldera National Preserve. The wildfire burned a total of 158,000 acre in the Jemez Mountains, including most of neighboring Bandelier National Monument.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and science</h2><br>
<p>Valles Caldera is one of the smaller volcanoes in the supervolcano class. The circular topographic rim of the caldera measures 13.7 mi in diameter. The caldera and surrounding volcanic structures are one of the most thoroughly studied caldera complexes in the United States. Research studies have concerned the fundamental processes of magmatism, hydrothermal systems, and ore deposition. Nearly 40 deep cores have been examined, resulting in extensive subsurface data.</p><br>
<p>Valles Caldera is the younger of two calderas known at this location, having collapsed over and buried the older Toledo Caldera, which in turn may have collapsed over yet older calderas. The associated Cerros del Rio volcanic field, which forms the eastern Pajarito Plateau and the Caja del Rio, is older than the Toledo Caldera. These two large calderas formed during eruptions 1.47 million and 1.15 million years ago. The caldera and surrounding area continue to be shaped by ongoing volcanic activity. The El Cajete Pumice, Battleship Rock Ignimbrite, Banco Bonito Rhyolite, and the VC-1 Rhyolite were emplaced during the youngest eruption of Valles Caldera, about 50,000–60,000 years ago. Seismic investigations show that a low-velocity zone lies beneath the caldera, and an active geothermal system with hot springs and fumaroles exists today.</p><br>
<p>The lower Bandelier tuff which can be seen along canyon walls west of Valles Caldera, including San Diego Canyon, is related to the eruption and collapse of Toledo Caldera. The upper Bandelier tuff is believed to have been deposited during eruption and collapse of Valles Caldera. The now eroded and exposed orange-tan, light-colored Bandelier tuff from these events creates the stunning mesas of the Pajarito Plateau.</p><br>
<p>These calderas and associated volcanic structures lie within the Jemez Volcanic Field. This volcanic field lies above the intersection of the Rio Grande Rift, which runs north-south through New Mexico, and the Jemez Lineament, which extends from southeastern Arizona northeast to western Oklahoma. The volcanic activity here is related to the tectonic movements of this intersection.</p><br>
<h2>Geothermal energy source potential</h2><br>
<p>The volcanic properties of Valles Caldera make it a likely source for renewable and nonpolluting geothermal energy. However, some people oppose the development of geothermal energy, considering it destructive to its scenic beauty, recreational and grazing use. Its impact on the hot springs and supplying aquifers is unknown as experiences from other past geothermal projects proved that production of reservoir fluids had dramatic impacts to the surface thermal features.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>A number of recreational and/or historical uses take place in Valles Caldera. Many of these uses involve trails. Valles Caldera has many miles of ranch roads, livestock and game trails. These include a network of trails currently designated for horse riding. Historically, Valles Caldera was a location for equestrian endurance races. After establishment of VCNP, the first race in the caldera was held in 2009. The largest grass valley, Valle Grande, is a venue for ski orienteering. Activities are open to the public, though some require reservations. Customer service and concierge services are provided by the Public Lands Interpretive Association.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife and livestock</h2><br>
<p>Throughout the caldera, the grass valleys appear groomed: there are few saplings and mature trees lack lower branches. This is due to heavy browsing by elk and cattle and because of frequent grass fires of human and natural origin which kill the lower branches on the Engelmann spruce, Douglas-fir and Ponderosa pine that populate the uplands around the grasslands dominating the bottoms of the calderas. Extreme cold in winter prevents tree growth in the bottoms of the calderas. The grasslands were native perennial bunch grass maintained by frequent fire before sheep and cattle grazing. Although the grass appears abundant, it is a limited resource. Its growing season is short. Through the VCNP&#39;s limited grazing program, it feeds hundreds of cattle in the summer and thousands more of elk in the warm seasons and in drought winters, and during most of the year. Its nutritional value is low.</p><br>
<h2>Films shot in Valles Caldera</h2><br>
<p>Valles Caldera has provided several filming locations, most for films in the Western genre. Some of these locations include exterior sets, such as the weathered "ranch house" that can be seen from the highway in Valle Grande, and a small "town".</p><br>
<p>1971 Shoot Out</p><br>
<p>1977 Peter Lundy and the Medicine Hat Stallion (TV)</p><br>
<p>1982 The Gambler (TV)</p><br>
<p>1994 Troublemakers</p><br>
<p>1995 Buffalo Girls (TV)</p><br>
<p>1997 Last Stand at Saber River (TV)</p><br>
<p>2003 The Missing</p><br>
<p>2007 Seraphim Falls</p><br>
<p>2013 The Lone Ranger</p><br>
<p>2012-2017 Longmire (TV series)</p><br>
<p>Stromboli  is a small island in the Tyrrhenian Sea, off the north coast of Sicily, containing one of the three active volcanoes in Italy. It is one of the eight Aeolian Islands, a volcanic arc north of Sicily. This name is derived from the Ancient Greek name Strongulē which was given to it because of its round swelling form. The islands population is about 500. The volcano has erupted many times and is constantly active with minor eruptions, often visible from many points on the island and from the surrounding sea, giving rise to the islands nickname "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean".</p><br>
<p>Stromboli&#39;s most recent major eruption was on 13 April 2009. Stromboli stands 926 m (3,034 ft) above sea level,</p><br>
<p>and over 2,700 m (8,860 ft) on average above the sea floor. There are three active craters at the peak. A significant geological feature of the volcano is the Sciara del Fuoco ("stream of fire"), a big horseshoe-shaped depression generated in the last 13,000 years by several collapses on the northwestern side of the cone. Two kilometers to the northeast lies Strombolicchio, the volcanic plug remnant of the original volcano.</p><br>
<h2>Volcano</h2><br>
<p>Mt. Stromboli has been in almost continuous eruption for the past 2,000 years.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<p>The two villages San Bartolo and San Vincenzo lie in the northeast while the smaller village Ginostra lies in the southwest. Administratively, they are one of the frazione of Lipari.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1900s a few thousand people inhabited the island, but after several emigrations the population numbered a few hundred by the mid-1950s.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864) by Jules Verne, the conclusion of the novel is set on Stromboli.</p><br>
<p>Author J.R.R. Tolkien identified his fictional volcano Mount Doom in Mordor with the volcano of Stromboli, according to scholar Clyde S. Kilby.</p><br>
<p>Stromboli (1950), also known as: Stromboli, land of God, is an Italian-American film set on Stromboli, directed by Roberto Rossellini and starring Ingrid Bergman.</p><br>
<p>The climax of the 2007 novel The Book of the Dead, by Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child, takes place on the summit of the Stromboli volcano.</p><br>
<p>In 2013 Geir Jenssen released an album entitled Stromboli, consisting of field recordings made at edge of Stromboli&#39;s crater on 19 July 2012.</p><br>
<p>Dikson Island , initially Dickson, is the name of an island in Taymyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky District , Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia, situated in the Kara Sea near the mouth of the Yenisei River. A nearby urban-type settlement of Dikson, which functions as a port and hydrometeorological centre is located on the mainland across from the island. It is served by the Dikson Airport.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Dikson Island and its adjoining urban settlement have been named after Swedish Arctic pioneer Baron Oscar Dickson. In the 17th century the island was known as Dolgy ("long") island, or Kuzkin, after its Pomor discoverer. In 1875, the Finnish explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld renamed it for the wealthy Swedish merchant and philanthropist of Scottish origin Oskar Dickson. The name was soon Russified, by dropping the "c". Dikson has been the official name of the island since 1884. Oscar Dickson, along with Aleksandr Mikhaylovich Sibiryakov, had been the patron of a number of early Arctic expeditions, including Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld&#39;s Russian Arctic explorations.</p><br>
<p>In 1915 the island became the site of the first Russian radio station in the Arctic. The seaport on the mainland was built in 1935, and in 1957 the two settlements were merged into one.</p><br>
<p>During World War II the town was bombarded by the German pocket battleship Admiral Scheer in August 1942 during Operation Wunderland.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Dikson has a severe Arctic tundra climate (Köppen climate classification ET). The weather (even in the warmest month, August) is notoriously unpleasant. Winter in Dikson lasts ten months, and for two of those months the sun never rises.</p><br>
<p>The Adur is a river in Sussex, England; it gives its name to the Adur district of West Sussex. The river, which is some 20 miles long, was formerly navigable for large vessels up as far as Steyning, where there was a large port, but by the 11th century the river valley became silted up and the port moved down to the deeper waters nearer the mouth in Shoreham-by-Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Watercourse</h2><br>
<p>The Adur begins as two separate branches, the western Adur and the eastern Adur, which meet 2km west of Henfield.</p><br>
<p>The western Adur rises at Slinfold from where it flows around Coolham and then through Shipley, where it meets Lancing Brook and flows on to West Grinstead and Knepp Castle. The western Adur is tidal as far north as Bines Bridge near Bines Green, south of West Grinstead.</p><br>
<p>The eastern Adur rises at Ditchling Common, in East Sussex, from where it crosses into West Sussex and meets another major stream at Twineham. At Shermanbury, the eastern Adur is fed by the Cowfold Stream. The Normal Tidal Limit is just below this at the footbridge near Shermanbury Church although a weir just above the confluence with the Western Adur means that only the highest tides reach here. Up to the early 1800s boats could navigate to Mock Bridge where the A281 crosses the Adur.</p><br>
<p>From west of Henfield, the two branches of the river meet, before flowing between Upper Beeding and Bramber, past Coombes, through a gap in the South Downs near Lancing College where the Adur is fed by the Ladywell Stream. The river continues on to the English Channel at Shoreham-by-Sea. The mouth of the Adur is now two miles (3 km) from the town centre of Shoreham due to longshore drift.</p><br>
<p>The Baybridge Canal uses part of the Adur&#39;s watercourse.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Adur is a relatively recent (probably 1612S) invention, based on the name of the Roman fort Portus Adurni which was mistakenly believed to be at Shoreham. The river had previously been known as the Bramber, and was also recorded as the Sore in the sixteenth century, the latter probably a back-formation by William Harrison&#39;s Description of England (1577) from Shoreham (often Sorham in early sources).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>From Norman times the county of Sussex was divided into sections known as rapes. Each rape was typically centred on a river and river port and was guarded by a castle. Bramber rape was centred on the port of Bramber and the river Adur, with Bramber Castle located close to the river. At various times in the medieval period, Bramber, Steyning and New Shoreham were all major ports on the river. The western Adur also flows close to Knepp Castle, near Shipley.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<p>Slinfold</p><br>
<p>Shipley</p><br>
<p>West Grinstead</p><br>
<p>Ditchling</p><br>
<p>Twineham</p><br>
<p>Wineham</p><br>
<p>Shermanbury</p><br>
<p>Bramber</p><br>
<p>Upper Beeding</p><br>
<p>Coombes</p><br>
<p>Shoreham-by-Sea</p><br>
<p>Strokkur  is a fountain geyser located in a geothermal area beside the Hvítá River in Iceland in the southwest part of the country, east of Reykjavík. It is one of Iceland&#39;s most famous geysers, erupting once every 6–10 minutes. Its usual height is 15–20 m, although it can sometimes erupt up to 40 m high.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Strokkur belongs to the Haukadalur valley area, where various other geothermal feature such as mud pools, fumaroles and other geysers are located around it, such as the famous Geysir geyser.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Strokkur was first mentioned in 1789, after an earthquake helped to unblock the conduit of the geyser. Its activity fluctuated throughout the 19th century; in 1815 its height was estimated to have been as much as 60 metres. It continued to erupt until the turn of the 20th century, until another earthquake blocked the conduit again. In 1963, upon the advice of the Geysir Committee, locals cleaned out the blocked conduit through the bottom of the basin, and the geyser has been regularly erupting ever since.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Strokkur and its surrounding areas regularly attract tourists hoping to see the geyser erupt, as it is one of a very few natural geysers to erupt frequently and reliably.</p><br>
<h2>Evolution of the eruption</h2><br>
<p>Strokkur, Área geotérmica de Geysir, Suðurland, Islandia, 2014-08-16, DD 083.JPG</p><br>
<p>Strokkur, Área geotérmica de Geysir, Suðurland, Islandia, 2014-08-16, DD 084.JPG</p><br>
<p>Strokkur, Área geotérmica de Geysir, Suðurland, Islandia, 2014-08-16, DD 085.JPG</p><br>
<p>Strokkur, Área geotérmica de Geysir, Suðurland, Islandia, 2014-08-16, DD 086.JPG</p><br>
<p>Strokkur, Área geotérmica de Geysir, Suðurland, Islandia, 2014-08-16, DD 087.JPG</p><br>
<p>Strokkur, Área geotérmica de Geysir, Suðurland, Islandia, 2014-08-16, DD 088.JPG</p><br>
<p>Strokkur, Área geotérmica de Geysir, Suðurland, Islandia, 2014-08-16, DD 089.JPG</p><br>
<p>Strokkur, Área geotérmica de Geysir, Suðurland, Islandia, 2014-08-16, DD 090.JPG</p><br>
<p>Bowen Island , British Columbia, is an island municipality in Howe Sound, is part of the Metro Vancouver Regional District, and is an island included within the jurisdiction of the Islands Trust. Approximately 6 km wide by 12 km long, the island at its closest point is about 3 km west of the mainland. There is regular ferry service from Horseshoe Bay, as well as three water taxi services. The population of 3,402 is supplemented in the summer by roughly 1,500 visitors, as Bowen Island is a popular vacation home location for British Columbians. About 500 workers and over 200 students commute to offices and schools on the mainland each day. The island has a land area of 49.94 km .</p><br>
<h2>Indigenous peoples</h2><br>
<p>The name for Bowen Island is Nex̱wlélex̱m in the Squamish language of the Squamish people. The Squamish peoples used and occupied the area around Howe Sound including Bowen Island. Areas such as Snug Cove and a few other parts of the island were used as campsites for hunting and gathering trips.</p><br>
<p>Historically they would use the warmer spring and summer months to travel to resource gathering sites and move from their permanent winter villages. The strip of land between Bowen and Finisterre Islands has a name that translates to "Fast Drumming Ground". The tide rushing in and out is reminiscent of the sound of drums beating quickly. The name "Kwém̓shem" is used for Hood Point. Bowen is still used by people from Squamish and Musqueam for deer hunting. Into the 20th century Bowen Island was actively used by Squamish people for deer and duck hunting, fishing and, later, wage jobs. In conversations with Vancouver archivist Major Matthews in the 1950s, August Jack Khatsahlano recalls knowing several Squamish who worked for whalers on the island at the turn of the 20th century. In a conversation with City of Vancouver archivist JA Matthews, Khatsahlano himself recalls deer hunting on Bowen, saying that at one time he took the biggest deer in British Columbia from the island, weighing in at 195 pounds.</p><br>
<h2>Post-colonization</h2><br>
<p>When Spanish explorers arrived on the west coast of Canada, they named many of the features of what is now the Strait of Georgia. Bowen Island was called Isla de Apodaca (after the Mexican town of Apodaca, in north-east Nuevo León province - itself named after a benevolent bishop, Salvador de Apodaca y Loreto) by the Spanish Captain José María Narváez in July, 1791. In 1860 Cpt. George Henry Richards renamed the island after Rear Admiral James Bowen master of the HMS Queen Charlotte.</p><br>
<p>Bowen remained a wilderness until 1871 when homesteaders built houses and started a brickworks, which supplied bricks to the expanding city of Vancouver. Over the years, local industry has included an explosives factory, logging, mining, and milling, although there is no heavy industry on the island at present.</p><br>
<h2>20th century</h2><br>
<p>In the first half of the 20th century, life on Bowen was dominated by a resort operated by the Terminal Steamship Company (1900 - 1920) and the Union Steamship Company (1920 - 1962). These companies provided steamer service to Vancouver, and the Horseshoe Bay - Bowen Island Ferry began in 1921. When the Union Steamship resort closed in the 1960s the island returned to a quiet period of slow growth. In the 1940s and 1950s, the artists&#39; colony called Lieben was a retreat for many famous Canadian authors, artists, and intellectuals including Earle Birney, Alice Munro, Dorothy Livesay, Margaret Laurence, A.J.M. Smith, Jack Shadbolt, Eric Nicol and Malcolm Lowry, who finished his last book, October Ferry to Gabriola, there. In the 1980s, real estate pressures in Vancouver accelerated growth on Bowen and currently the local economy is largely dependent on commuters who work on the mainland in Greater Vancouver. Prior to becoming a municipality, Bowen Island was part of the Sunshine Coast Regional District, made up of small communities and municipalities. However, in the 1980s the island transferred to the Greater Vancouver Regional District after a campaign organized by developers and realtors. A campaign to make the island an autonomous municipality was successful after two referendum attempts.</p><br>
<p>In 1999 the Bowen Island Municipality was incorporated, becoming the second "island municipality" in BC. The first was Saltspring Island which was incorporated in 1873 and dissolved by the BC legislature 10 years later.</p><br>
<h2>21st century</h2><br>
<h3>Commerce</h3><br>
<p>The Island has several small businesses including marinas, cafes, gift shops, grocery stores, a post office, pharmacy, restaurants, garden and flower shops, and a building supply yard. In June 2007, First Credit Union, a full-service credit union, opened its doors in Snug Cove. There is also a North Shore Credit Union automated banking machine. Groceries stores and shops are available, concentrated around Snug Cove and Artisan Square. There are also several restaurants and cafes. Bowen Island has a high proportion of artists and artisans, whose products are available at local island venues. There is also a 2,746 metre (3,003 yard) 130 Slope rated 9-hole golf course.</p><br>
<h3>Transportation</h3><br>
<h4>Marine</h4><br>
<p>Bowen Island is served by three scheduled water-transportation operators:</p><br>
<p>BC Ferries, a de facto Provincial Crown corporation, serves the island with the Queen of Capilano car ferry, which travels between Horseshoe Bay in West Vancouver and Snug Cove on Bowen Island.</p><br>
<p>English Bay Launch runs a passenger-only water taxi weekday commuter service between Snug Cove and Vancouvers Coal Harbour, and on summer weekends runs a tourist service between Snug Cove and Vancouvers Granville Island.</p><br>
<p>Cormorant Marine runs a passenger-only water taxi service providing late-night sailings between the government docks in Horseshoe Bay and in Snug Cove. In addition, weekday commuter sailings are made between Snug Cove and Horseshoe Bay, to connect with the Bowen Express Bus from downtown Vancouver.</p><br>
<h4>Land</h4><br>
<p>Public roads are maintained by the Bowen Island Municipality. There are roadside walking trails in only a few places and the terrain is hilly and winding. Private vehicles are the primary form of transportation and hitchhiking is commonplace.</p><br>
<p>Bowen Island has a limited bus service (ending at 7 p.m.) of two TransLink routes:volume=</p><br>
<p>Route C10 - Bluewater/Snug Cove</p><br>
<p>Route C11 - EagleCliff/Snug Cove</p><br>
<h3>Education</h3><br>
<p>The Island is in the West Vancouver School district and has an award-winning public elementary school Bowen Island Community School. High school students living in Bowen Island (grades 8 to 12) travel to West Vancouver to attend West Vancouver Secondary School, Sentinel Secondary School, or Rockridge. There is the Island Pacific School, an international baccalaureate middle school for grades 6 through 9. Some students also travel to West Vancouver to attend French Immersion at Ecole Pauline Johnson. There is a public supported home learning program The Learning Centre and a growing number of families also unschool.</p><br>
<h3>Culture</h3><br>
<p>Despite its modest population, Bowen Islanders can enjoy a rich cultural life without even travelling to its neighboring metropolis. Notably, Bowen Island boasts four different choral ensembles; an extensive theatre school for children; a public gallery which showcases local artists; and a busy library housed in the heritage Old General Store. The Bowen Island Museum and Archive features regularly changing exhibits documenting Bowen Islands history, as well as a restored loggers cabin from 1948, while Bowen Heritage hosts special events such as a harvest Applefest and maintains a Union Steamship resort cottage museum built in 1928.</p><br>
<h3>Recreation</h3><br>
<p>Bowen has a long history as a day-trip destination from Vancouver. Today, the island offers a number of popular swimming beaches, including Sandy Beach, Tunstall Bay, Cates Bay and Bowen Bay. There is a kayak rental operation in Snug Cove. Crippen Regional Park features maintained trails and picnic areas. A popular hike leads from the ferry dock to Killarney Lake, and from there up Mount Gardner, the islands highest point. The island hosts annual sailing and kayaking races. There are work out facilities and a tennis court operated by the Recreation department of the municipality at the elementary school as well as private gym facilities and yoga classes. The baseball diamond In Snug Cove is home to the popular. The artificial turf field at the elementary school is home to.</p><br>
<h3>Places of worship</h3><br>
<p>There are regular Buddhist meditation sittings in both the Zen and Vipassana traditions.</p><br>
<p>Bowen&#39;s Jewish community celebrates Shabbat and high holidays, and acquired a Torah in 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<h2>Films shot entirely or partly on Bowen Island</h2><br>
<p>1966 The Trap</p><br>
<p>1976 The Food of the Gods</p><br>
<p>1986 Clan of the Cave Bear</p><br>
<p>1988 People Across the Lake</p><br>
<p>1988 American Gothic</p><br>
<p>1989 Cousins</p><br>
<p>1989 Look Who&#39;s Talking</p><br>
<p>1990 Bird on a Wire</p><br>
<p>1990 The Russia House</p><br>
<p>1993 Another Stakeout</p><br>
<p>1994 Intersection</p><br>
<p>1995 Hideaway</p><br>
<p>1997 All the Winters That Have Been</p><br>
<p>1998 Disturbing Behavior</p><br>
<p>1999 Double Jeopardy</p><br>
<p>2001 Antitrust</p><br>
<p>2004 Rugged Rich and the Ona Ona</p><br>
<p>2005 The Fog</p><br>
<p>2005 Paper Moon Affair</p><br>
<p>2006 The Hitchhiker</p><br>
<p>2006 The Wicker Man</p><br>
<p>2008 Are We Still the Ugly American?</p><br>
<p>2008 River</p><br>
<p>2009 The Uninvited</p><br>
<p>2009 Harper&#39;s Island, CBS 13-episode miniseries.</p><br>
<p>Peberholm , is a small artificial island in the Danish part of the Øresund strait, created as part of the Øresund Bridge connecting Denmark with Sweden. Peberholm is close to the small natural island of Saltholm , and was named to complement it. Area: 325 acres.</p><br>
<h2>Reasons for construction</h2><br>
<p>The main reason for constructing the island was to have a crossover point between the tunnel and the bridge.</p><br>
<p>The tunnel was built since a bridge spanning the entire link between Malmö and Copenhagen would have interfered with obstacle-free zones around Kastrup Airport. Another reason was to provide an opportunity for large ships to pass the Öresund without worrying about the height of the bridge. To make the Øresund Bridge higher would interfere with the freight train traffic because a steeper gradient would be needed.</p><br>
<p>The other main reason was that the Øresund had to be dug deeper in order to not decrease the flow of the water because of the bridge. The material was used to create this island. The area was so shallow, and the amount of material so large, that it was chosen to make the island as long as 4 km.</p><br>
<p>The border between Swedish and Danish train signalling and train traffic control, is located on Peberholm.</p><br>
<h2>Built to preserve ecology</h2><br>
<p>The original designs for a bridge across the Øresund required extensive use of Saltholm as a stepping-stone for the bridge. They required either the construction of both a motorway and railway across Saltholm or an expansion of the existing island to serve the same purpose.</p><br>
<p>Both of these options were ultimately abandoned in order to protect the island&#39;s ecology; Danish and Swedish politicians decided instead to construct an artificial island immediately south of Saltholm to achieve that goal. The location was chosen in the belief that it would ensure the freest flow of water through the sound, a key element in the debate about whether or not the bridge should be constructed.</p><br>
<p>Peberholm is protected by strict laws. Only biologists are allowed one annual visit to the areas of the island outside of the railroad and highway to which the island owes its creation. The island is part of Natura 2000 area 142, comprising Saltholm and surrounding waters with a total area of 7,218 ha. The same area is also under two birdprotections as habitats H110 and H126.</p><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>Peberholm is considered to be a biological experiment. Scientists predicted that nature would colonize it and make the island flourish on its own, without any human interaction whatsoever. As of June 2007, scientists from the Biological Society of Lund had registered 454 species of plants on the island. Also resident to the island were about 20 species of spiders, and approximately 12 species of birds.</p><br>
<p>Since 2008, both the amount and number of bird species has seen an increase, and now between 20–30 species breed on Peberholm regularly. The island is largely inhabited by severals kinds of breeding gulls, and some locally threatened species have also found a home here as breeders, including Mediterranean gull and Eurasian rock pipit in some years. Many geese, ducks, Great cormorants and waders rest on the small island and White-tailed eagle is often observed here in the winter. The European green toad, which is rare and to be protected in Denmark, was found living in several ditches. In 2007–08 the toads were counted to be c. 2,500 individuals, which is among the largest populations in Scandinavia. It is assumed that toads from Saltholm have swum across. Three species of mice have also populated Peberholm, from very early on, and since 2010, hares crossed the ice from Saltholm as well and are now breeding on Peberholm. It is important to keep these populations under surveillance, as mice in particular are known to be potentially dangerous to the rails stability.</p><br>
<p>In the years 2004–08 surveys focussing on insects registered a total of 345 beetle species, 421 species of butterflies and 18 species of bees. This is, however, considered a relatively low diversity compared to similar habitats of Denmark and Sweden, but some of the species found on the island are rare or threatened in the region. The population of butterflies seems peculiarly skewed towards regionally uncommon or rare species, including Epiblema grandaevana (a species of moth) and Bath White (Pontia daplidice). In 2005 the venomous Hobo spider was discovered here, a spider that is only regionally known from a certain spot in Jutland. It is thought of as having migrated here by trains from abroad. And in 2006, the beetle species of Ceutorhynchus resedae was also discovered, a unique find in Denmark.</p><br>
<p>Saltholm  is a Danish island in the Øresund, the strait that separates Denmark and Sweden. It is located to the east of the Danish island of Amager in Tårnby municipality and lies just to the west of the sea border between Denmark and Sweden. It is 7 km long and 3 km wide, covering an area of 16 km², making it Denmark&#39;s 21st largest island. Saltholm is very flat; its highest point stands only 2 m  above sea level, rendering it vulnerable to flooding if persistent east winds cause a tidal surge in the Baltic Sea. It is a relatively new landmass in geological terms, having risen from the sea about 4,000 years ago due to post-glacial rebound, and is surrounded by a large area of shallow water  that covers an area of 28 km². A series of islets, inlets and rock deposits from the last ice age appear at the south end of the island.</p><br>
<p>Its neighboring island to the south is the artificial island Peberholm (Pepper Islet), which is a part of the Øresund Bridge and was named to complement Saltholm.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Saltholm&#39;s vegetation is dominated primarily by grasses, with its landscape consisting mainly of flat chalk meadowlands and coastal meadow. There are few trees on Saltholm, clustered mainly in two places in the north and south-west of the island. The island has a rich variety of flora, notably motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca), henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), blue iris (Iris spuria) and chickweed.</p><br>
<p>Saltholm is a protected nature reserve for wild birds which nest in large numbers on the island. The southern part of the island, an extensive salt marsh, is protected under the Ramsar Convention and the island as a whole, along with the surrounding area of sea, has been designated a nature reserve by the European Union. Mussel beds, eel grass, snails, crustaceans and fish in the shallow waters around the island provide an important food source for water birds. Because of its importance as a wildlife sanctuary, access to Saltholm and its surrounding waters is strictly controlled. Access to the island is via a small harbour at Barakkebro, at the north end of Saltholm.</p><br>
<p>The island is Denmarks largest grazing area for geese, some 7,000 of which visit during the summer. Around 3,500 juvenile swans also live on the island in the summer, with some 2,000 wintering there. 10,000–12,000 ducks breed and graze on Saltholm during autumn and late winter/spring. Saltholm is also home to Europes largest breeding colony of eiders; 15,000 live on the island during the spring and some 7,000–8,000 are hatched on the island each year.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Humans have lived in small numbers on Saltholm since the Middle Ages and probably before. The population has ranged from a peak of 298 people in 1916, when the island was fortified during World War I, to only five people as of January 2008. The current inhabitants manage the farm Holmegård on a nature reserve in the northwest of the island to maintain the grass for nesting birds.</p><br>
<p>The existence of the island is first attested in 1230, when King Valdemar II of Denmark is recorded as having given Saltholm to Bishop Niels Stigsen of the see of Roskilde. For centuries, the island was used to quarry limestone, which was used in nearby Copenhagen and elsewhere; in 1289, the town lord of Copenhagen is recorded to have granted quarrying rights on Saltholm and quarrying continued until as late as 1935. The island was also traditionally used as pasture land for the cattle of the people of the nearby Danish island of Amager. The cows of Saltholm were commemorated in the late 19th century by the Danish painter Theodor Philipsen, who travelled frequently to the island to paint its cattle and treeless landscapes.</p><br>
<p>Saltholm was used as a quarantine station between 1709 and 1711 when Copenhagen suffered plague and cholera outbreaks. Travellers wishing to land in the city were required to stay in quarantine on the island for 40 days. In 1873, a private company, the Saltholmlaug, acquired the island from the state and still owns it today.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s position in the middle of the Øresund gave it some military significance during the two World Wars. In 1912, the Danish government constructed the Flakfortet (sand-shoal fort) on the Salthom Flak sands just north of the island proper, stationing a number of artillery pieces ranging in calibre from 47 mm to 290 mm. Most of the guns were mounted on barbette carriages and protected by armoured shields and concrete and earthen ramparts. The fort was still active at the start of World War II; although old, its guns were still seen as a strong deterrent.</p><br>
<p>Saltholm was the site of an incident resulting in the loss of the British submarine HMS E13, which ran aground on the island on 17 August 1915 due to a faulty compass. Two days later, two German destroyers attacked the submarine while it was still stranded on the shoreline as the crew worked to refloat the vessel. Fifteen of the submariners were killed before Danish torpedo boats intervened to deter the attackers. The violation of the country&#39;s neutrality outraged the Danish government, prompting a diplomatic protest to the Germans, and the casualties were given high-profile official funerals by the Danish navy. The surviving crew were interned in Denmark until the end of the war in November 1918, and the wrecked submarine was scrapped. The commander of the E13, Lt Cdr Geoffrey Layton, went on to have a distinguished career in the Royal Navy and commanded the British Eastern Fleet during the Second World War.</p><br>
<p>The island was for many years considered as a possible location for a new international airport and fixed link between Denmark and Sweden. The nearby Copenhagen Airport at Kastrup has long been the busiest airport in Scandinavia but has suffered from an acute shortage of space and its proximity to built-up areas. In 1965, the Nordic Council agreed in principle to build a new international airport on Saltholm, to replace the airport at Kastrup, and to construct a bridge-and-tunnel link across the island to connect Copenhagen and Malmö. The proposal was strongly supported by Scandinavian Airlines System, the main user of Copenhagen Airport. The plan envisaged building two pairs of runways, which would be carrying up to 20 million passengers a year by 1990. A 9 km bridge would connect it to Malmö and a 5 km tunnel would link to Kastrup on the Danish side. The project was costed at the equivalent of £250 million in 1967 (£3.1 billion / €3.4 billion at 2009 prices).</p><br>
<p>The plan was approved by the Danish parliament in 1969 with completion scheduled for 1985. However, it was repeatedly delayed; contributory factors included the 1973 oil crisis and its economic fallout, a slump in air travel, and opposition from campaigners concerned about the impact on the fragile environment in the Øresund and around the island. The plan was abandoned in 1979 and further investment was made in Copenhagen Airport instead. When the Oresund fixed link was eventually built in the 1990s, it was routed 1 km south of Saltholm to avoid damaging the island and the surrounding shallow waters.</p><br>
<p>In the internationally acclaimed Danish-Swedish detective series The Bridge, Saltholm provided the climactic location in the final episode of the third season, first broadcast in 2015.</p><br>
<p>Ebla , was one of the earliest kingdoms in Syria. Its remains constitute a tell located about 55 km southwest of Aleppo near the village of Mardikh. Ebla was an important center throughout the third millennium BC and in the first half of the second millennium BC. Its discovery proved the Levant was a center of ancient, centralized civilization equal to Egypt and Mesopotamia, and ruled out the view that the latter two were the only important centers in the Near East during the early Bronze Age. Karl Moore described the first Eblaite kingdom as the first recorded world power.</p><br>
<p>Starting as a small settlement in the early Bronze Age (c. 3500 BC), Ebla developed into a trading empire and later into an expansionist power that imposed its hegemony over much of northern and eastern Syria. Ebla was destroyed during the 23rd century BC; it was then rebuilt and was mentioned in the records of the Third Dynasty of Ur. The second Ebla was a continuation of the first, ruled by a new royal dynasty. It was destroyed at the end of the third millennium BC, which paved the way for the Amorite tribes to settle in the city, forming the third Ebla. The third kingdom also flourished as a trade center; it became a subject and an ally of Yamhad (modern-day Aleppo) until its final destruction by the Hittite king Mursili I in c. 1600 BC.</p><br>
<p>Ebla maintained its prosperity through a vast trading network. Artifacts from Sumer, Cyprus, Egypt and as far as Afghanistan were recovered from the citys palaces. The kingdom had its own language, Eblaite and the political organization of Ebla had features different from the Sumerian model. Women enjoyed a special status and the queen had major influence in the state and religious affairs. The pantheon of gods was mainly north Semitic and included deities exclusive to Ebla. The city was excavated starting in 1964, and became famous for the Ebla tablets, an archive of about 20,000 cuneiform tablets found there, dated to around 2350 BC. Written in both Sumerian and Eblaite and using the cuneiform, the archive has allowed a better understanding of the Sumerian language and provided important information over the political organization and social customs of the mid third millennium BCs Levant.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>A possible meaning of the word "Ebla" is "white rock", referring to the limestone outcrop on which the city was built. Ebla was first settled around 3500 BC; its growth was supported by many satellite agricultural settlements. The city benefited from its role as an entrepôt of growing international trade, which probably began with an increased demand for wool in Sumer. Archaeologists designate this early habitation period "Mardikh I&quot it ended around 3000 BC. Mardikh I is followed by the first and second kingdoms era between about 3000 and 2000 BC, designated "Mardikh II". I. J. Gelb consider Ebla as part of the Kish civilization, which was a cultural entity of East Semitic-speaking populations that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to the western Levant.</p><br>
<h3>First kingdom</h3><br>
<p>During the first kingdom period between about 3000 and 2300 BC, Ebla was the most prominent kingdom among the Syrian states, especially during the second half of the 3rd millennium BC, which is known as "the age of the archives" after the Ebla tablets.</p><br>
<h4>Early period</h4><br>
<p>The early period between 3000 and 2400 BC is designated "Mardikh IIA". General knowledge about the citys history prior to the written archives is obtained through excavations. The first stages of Mardikh IIA is identified with building "CC", and structures that form a part of building "G2", which was apparently a royal palace built c. 2700 BC. Toward the end of this period, a hundred years war with Mari started. Mari gained the upper hand through the actions of its king Saʿumu, who conquered many of Eblas cities. In the mid-25th century BC, king Kun-Damu defeated Mari, but the states power declined following his reign.</p><br>
<h4>Archive period</h4><br>
<p>The archive period, which is designated "Mardikh IIB1", lasted from c. 2400 BC until c. 2300 BC. The end of the period is known as the "first destruction", mainly referring to the destruction of the royal palace (called palace "G" and built over the earlier "G2"), and much of the acropolis. During the archive period, Ebla had political and military dominance over the other Syrian city-states of northern and eastern Syria, which are mentioned in the archives. Most of the tablets, which date from that period, are about economic matters but also include royal letters and diplomatic documents.</p><br>
<p>The written archives do not date from before Igrish-Halam&#39;s reign, which saw Ebla paying tribute to Mari, and an extensive invasion of Eblaite cities in the middle Euphrates region led by the Mariote king Iblul-Il. Ebla recovered under King Irkab-Damu in about 2340 BC; becoming prosperous and launching a successful counter-offensive against Mari. Irkab-Damu concluded a peace and trading treaty with Abarsal; it is one of the earliest-recorded treaties in history.</p><br>
<p>At its greatest extent, Ebla controlled an area roughly half the size of modern Syria, from Ursa&#39;um in the north, to the area around Damascus in the south, and from Phoenicia and the coastal mountains in the west, to Haddu in the east. Large parts of the kingdom were under the direct control of the king and was administered by governors; the rest consisted of vassal kingdoms. One of the most important of these vassals was Armi, which is the city most often mentioned in the Ebla tablets. Ebla had more than sixty vassal kingdoms and city-states, including Hazuwan, Burman, Emar, Halabitu and Salbatu.</p><br>
<p>The vizier was the kings chief official. The holder of the office possessed great authority; the most powerful vizier was Ibrium, who campaigned against Abarsal during the term of his predecessor Arrukum. During the reign of Isar-Damu, Ebla continued the war against Mari, which defeated Eblas ally Nagar, blocking trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia. Ebla conducted regular military campaigns against rebellious vassals, including several attacks on Armi, and a campaign against the southern region of Ibal—close to Qatna. In order to settle the war with Mari, Isar-Damu allied with Nagar and Kish. The campaign was headed by the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish, who led the combined armies to victory in a battle near Terqa. The alliance also attacked Armi and occupied it, leaving Ibbi-Sipishs son Enzi-Malik as governor. Ebla suffered its first destruction a few years after the campaign, probably following Isar-Damu&#39;s death.</p><br>
<h4>First destruction of Ebla</h4><br>
<p>The first destruction occurred; palace "G" was burned, baking the clay tablets of the royal archives and preserving them. Many theories about the cause and the perpetrator have been posited:</p><br>
<p>High (early) dating hypothesis: Giovanni Pettinato supports an early dating for Ebla that would put the destruction at around 2500 BC. Pettinato, while preferring the date of 2500 BC, later accepted the event could have happened in 2400 BC. The scholar suggests the city was destroyed in 2400 BC by a Mesopotamian such as Eannatum of Lagash—who boasted of taking tribute from Mari—or Lugalzagesi of Umma, who claimed to have reached the Mediterranean.</p><br>
<p>Akkadian hypothesis: Both kings Sargon of Akkad and his grandson Naram-Sin claimed to have destroyed a town called Ibla, The discoverer of Ebla, Paolo Matthiae, considers Sargon a more likely culprit; his view is supported by Trevor Bryce, but rejected by Michael Astour.</p><br>
<p>Mari&#39;s revenge: According to Alfonso Archi and Maria Biga, the destruction happened approximately three or four years after the battle of Terqa. Archi and Biga say the destruction was caused by Mari in retaliation for its humiliating defeat at Terqa. This view is supported by Mario Liverani. Archi says the Mariote king Isqi-Mari destroyed Ebla before ascending the throne of his city.</p><br>
<p>Natural catastrophe: Astour says a natural catastrophe caused the blaze which ended the archive period. He says the destruction was limited to the area of the royal palace and there is no convincing evidence of looting. He dates the fire to c. 2290 BC (Middle Chronology).</p><br>
<h3>Second kingdom</h3><br>
<p>The second kingdoms period is designated "Mardikh IIB2", and spans the period between 2300 and 2000 BC. The second kingdom lasted until Eblas second destruction, which occurred anytime between 2050 and 1950 BC, with the 2000 BC dating being a mere formal date. The Akkadians under Sargon and his descendant Naram-Sin invaded the northern borders of Ebla aiming for the forests of the Amanus Mountain; the intrusions were separated by roughly 90 years and the areas attacked were not attached to Akkad. Archi accept that the Ibla mentioned in the annals of Sargon and Naram-Sin is the Syrian Ebla but do not consider them responsible for the destruction which ended the Archive period. By the time of Naram-Sin, Armi was the hegemonic city in northern Syria and was destroyed by the Akkadian king.</p><br>
<p>A new local dynasty ruled the second kingdom of Ebla, but there was continuity with its first kingdom heritage. Ebla maintained its earliest features, including its architectural style and the sanctity of the first kingdom&#39;s religious sites. A new royal palace was built in the lower town, and the transition from the archive period is marked only by the destruction of palace "G". Little is known about the second kingdom because no written material have been discovered aside from one inscription dating to the end of the period.</p><br>
<p>The second kingdom was attested to in contemporaneous sources; in an inscription, Gudea of Lagash asked for cedars to be brought from Urshu in the mountains of Ebla, indicating Eblas territory included Urshu north of Carchemish in modern-day Turkey. Texts that dates to the seventh year of Amar-Sin (c. 2040 BC), a ruler of the Ur III empire, mention a messenger of the Ensí ("Megum") of Ebla. The second kingdom was considered a vassal by the Ur III government, but the nature of the relation is unknown and it included the payment of tribute. A formal recognition of Urs overlordship appears to be a condition for the right of trade with that empire.</p><br>
<p>The second kingdom disintegrated toward the end of the 21st century BC, and ended with the destruction of the city by fire, although evidence for the event has only been found outside of the so-called "Temple of the Rock", and in the area around palace "E" on the acropolis. The reason for the destruction is not known; according to Astour, it could have been the result of a Hurrian invasion c. 2030 BC, led by the former Eblaite vassal city of Ikinkalis. The destruction of Ebla is mentioned in the fragmentary Hurro-Hittite legendary epic "Song of Release" discovered in 1983, which Astour considers as describing the destruction of the second kingdom. In the epic, an Eblaite assembly led by a man called "Zazalla" prevents king Meki from showing mercy to prisoners from Ebla&#39;s former vassal Ikinkalis, provoking the wrath of the Hurrian storm god Teshub and causing him to destroy the city.</p><br>
<h3>Third kingdom</h3><br>
<p>The third kingdom is designated "Mardikh III&quot it is divided into periods "A" (c. 2000–1800 BC) and "B" (c. 1800–1600 BC). In period "A", Ebla was quickly rebuilt as a planned city. The foundations covered the remains of Mardikh II; new palaces and temples were built, and new fortifications were built in two circles—one for the low city and one for the acropolis. The city was laid out on regular lines and large public buildings were built. Further construction took place in period "B".</p><br>
<p>The first known king of the third kingdom is Ibbit-Lim, who described himself as the Mekim of Ebla. A basalt votive statue bearing Ibbit-Lim&#39;s inscription was discovered in 1968; this helped to identify the site of Tell-Mardikh with the ancient kingdom Ebla. The name of the king is Amorite in the view of Pettinato; it is therefore probable the inhabitants of third kingdom Ebla were predominantly Amorites, as were most of the inhabitants of Syria at that time.</p><br>
<p>By the beginning of the 18th century BC, Ebla had become a vassal of Yamhad, an Amorite kingdom centered in Aleppo. Written records are not available for this period, but the city was still a vassal during Yarim-Lim III of Yamhad&#39;s reign. One of the known rulers of Ebla during this period was Immeya, who received gifts from the Egyptian Pharaoh Hotepibre, indicating the continuing wide connections and importance of Ebla. The city was mentioned in tablets from the Yamhadite vassal city of Alalakh in modern-day Turkey; an Eblaite princess married a son of King Ammitaqum of Alalakh, who belonged to a branch of the royal Yamhadite dynasty.</p><br>
<p>Ebla was destroyed by the Hittite King Mursili I in about 1600 BC. Indilimma was probably the last king of Ebla; a seal of his crown prince Maratewari was discovered in the western palace "Q". According to Archi, the "Song of Release" epic describes the destruction of the third kingdom and preserves older elements.</p><br>
<h3>Later periods</h3><br>
<p>Ebla never recovered from its third destruction. It was a small village in the phase designated "Mardikh IV" (1600&ndash;1200 BC), and was mentioned in the records of Alalakh as a vassal to the Idrimi dynasty. "Mardikh V" (1200&ndash;535 BC) was a rural, early Iron Age settlement that grew in size during later periods. Further development occurred during "Mardikh VI", which lasted until c. 60 AD. "Mardikh VII" began in the 3rd century AD and lasted until the 7th century, after which the site was abandoned.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<h3>City layout</h3><br>
<p>Ebla consisted of a lower town and a raised acropolis in the center. During the first kingdom, the city had an area of 56 hectares and was protected by mud-brick fortifications. Ebla was divided into four districts—each with its own gate in the outer wall. The acropolis included the king&#39;s palace "G", and one of two temples in city dedicated to Kura (called the "Red Temple"). The lower city included the second temple of Kura in the southeast called "Temple of the Rock". During the second kingdom, a royal palace (Archaic Palace "P5") was built in the lower town northwest of the acropolis, in addition to temple "D" built over the destroyed "Red Temple".</p><br>
<p>During the third kingdom, Ebla was a large city nearly 60 hectares in size, and was protected by a fortified rampart, with double chambered gates. The acropolis was fortified and separated from the lower town. New royal palace "E" was built on the acropolis (during Mardikh IIIB), and a temple of Ishtar was constructed over the former "Red" and "D" temples (in area "D"). The lower town was also divided into four districts; palace "P5" was used during Mardikh IIIA, and replaced during Mardikh IIIB by the "Intermediate Palace".</p><br>
<p>Other third kingdom buildings included the vizier palace, the western palace (in area "Q"), the temple of Shamash (temple "N"), the temple of Rasap (temple "B1") and the northern palace (built over the "Intermediate Palace"). In the north of the lower town, a second temple for Ishtar was built, while the former "Temple of the Rock" was replaced by a temple of Hadad.</p><br>
<h3>Royal burials</h3><br>
<p>The kings of the first kingdom were buried outside the city; the last ten kings (ending with Irkab-Damu) were buried in Darib, while older kings were buried in a royal mausoleum located in Binas and only one royal tomb dating to the first kingdom was discovered in Ebla (Hypogeum G4). This first kingdom tomb was probably built during the reign of the last king and might be an indication of Eblaite adoption of Mesopotamian traditions to bury the kings beneath their royal palaces.</p><br>
<p>The third kingdom royal necropolis was discovered beneath palace Q (the western palace); it contains many hypogea but only three were excavated. Those tombs were natural caves in the bedrock of the palace&#39;s foundation; they all date to the 19th and 18th centuries BC and had a similar plan consisting of an entrance shaft, burial chambers and a dromos connecting the shaft to the chamber.</p><br>
<h4>Hypogeum G4</h4><br>
<p>The royal tomb found in the royal palace G is designated hypogeum G4; it dates to the archive period, most probably the reign of Isar-Damu. The tomb is heavily damaged; most of its stones were sacked and nothing of the roof system remains. It also lacks any skeletal remains or funerary goods suggesting that it was either heavily pillaged, never used, or was built as a cenotaph.</p><br>
<p>Excavated between 1992 and 1995, it is located underneath the western sector of the palace at a depth of almost 6 meters. The tomb is composed of two rooms opened on each other&#39;s with lime plaster floors. Both rooms are rectangular in shape; the eastern room (L.6402) is 4 meters wide, more than 3,5 meters long (total length is unknown due to heavy damage) and west-east oriented. The western room (L.5762) is 5.20 meters long, 4 meters wide and west-east oriented. Limestone was used to build the walls and few blocks protruding from the sides toward the middle of the rooms suggest the roof to have been a corbelled vault.</p><br>
<h4>Western palace tombs</h4><br>
<p>The tomb of the princess: dating to c. 1800 BC, it is the oldest and smallest of the third kingdom tombs found. Excavated in 1978, it contained the remains of a young woman, hence the naming. The dormos has steps, partially cut in the bedrock and partially paved with stones, leading to the chamber, which was achieved through the enlargement of a natural cave. The tomb is the only one not pillaged; it contained precious jewels and funerary objects.</p><br>
<p>The tomb of the cisterns: this tomb is the most damaged in the necropolis. It consists of a double room burial; the earliest, (Q79A), was built at the same period of the tomb of the princess, and was badly damaged when the tomb was reused, and a dromos was built in the place of Q79A toward the end of the 17th century BC (leading to the founding of burial Q79B). This was probably the resting place of a king; a club (a symbol of royal power) was discovered in Q79A.</p><br>
<p>The tomb of the lord of the goats: it is the largest in the necropolis; it includes two depositional chambers and is reached through a vertical shaft. The occupier of the tomb is not known with certainty, he is called the lord of the goats by archaeologists due to the existence of a throne decorated with bronze goat heads in the tomb. A silver cup that has the name of king Immeya inscribed was found in the tomb making that king the most likely owner of the burial.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>The first kingdom&#39;s government consisted of the king (styled Malikum) and the grand vizier, who headed a council of elders (Abbu) and the administration. The second kingdom was a monarchy, but little is known about it because of a lack of written records. The third kingdom was a city-state monarchy with reduced importance under the authority of Yamhad.</p><br>
<h3>Administration of the first kingdom</h3><br>
<p>The queen shared the running of affairs of state with the king. The crown prince was involved in internal matters and the second prince was involved in foreign affairs. Most duties, including military ones, were handled by the vizier and the administration, which consisted of 13 court dignitaries—each of whom controlled between 400 and 800 men forming a bureaucracy with 11,700 people. Each of the four quarters of the lower city was governed by a chief inspector and many deputies. To oversee royal interest, the king employed agents (mashkim), collectors (ur) and messengers (kas).</p><br>
<h4>Administrative divisions</h4><br>
<p>Many client kingdoms owed allegiance to Ebla and each was ruled by its own king (En); those vassal kings were highly autonomous, paying tribute and supplying military assistance to Ebla. The administrative center in the capital was named the "SA.ZA&quot it included the royal palaces, storerooms and some temples. Regions beyond the walls of the capital were collectively named in Eblaite texts "uru-bar" (literally meaning outside of the city). The villages and towns under the central authority were either ruled directly from the capital, or had appointed officials. The titles of the civil servants do not clearly define the bearer&#39;s responsibilities and authority as each town had its own political traditions.</p><br>
<p>Lugal: while in Mesopotamia a lugal designated a king, in Ebla it designated a governor who was directly under the authority of the capital. The nature of this title as part of Eblaite bureaucracy is ambiguous; each lugal was under the authority of the grand vizier, and the bearers ruled cities directly under the authority of the capital and they all brought goods to be kept in Ebla&#39;s storehouses. Pettinato counted 14 different lugals in the Eblaite administrative texts and deduced that the kingdom was divided into fourteen departments; two of them in the capital itself and the remaining twelve spanned the rest of the kingdom.</p><br>
<p>Ugula: the title is translated as superintendent; some ugulas were actually independent rulers and some represented the highest authority of a tribal group. Many cities had an appointed ugula as their head of administration such as the city of Darum.</p><br>
<h4>The chora</h4><br>
<p>The regions under the direct control of the king that were economically vital for the capital are called the "chora" by archaeologists. Regions under direct control of the king extended beyond the chora and it is difficult to determine the exact size of the kingdom and the chora due to the constant military expansion of Ebla which added new territories; some of those were ruled directly while others were allowed to retain their own rulers as vassals.</p><br>
<p>Generally, the chora is the core region of Ebla that includes the economic hinterland supporting the capital. It includes the cities and villages where the king or his vizier had palaces, towns that included important sanctuaries of gods related to the royal institution, towns visited by the monarch during the different rituals he participated in (such as the renewal of royalty ritual), and other cities such as the ones where textiles were delivered. The chora spans around 3000 square kilometers; from west to east it includes the plains east of Jabal Zawiya, the Maṭkh swamp, al-Hass mountain and mount Shabīth. Areas directly on the borders of the chora such as al-Ghab, al-Rouge plain and al-Jabbul have close cultural affinity with the chora.</p><br>
<h3>Kings of Ebla</h3><br>
<p>For the first kingdom monarchs, tablets listing offerings to kings mention ten names, and another list mentions 33 kings. No kings are known from the second kingdom and all dates are estimates according to the Middle chronology.</p><br>
<h2>People, language and culture</h2><br>
<h3>The first and second kingdoms</h3><br>
<p>Mardikh II&#39;s periods shared the same culture. the population of Ebla during Mardikh IIB1 is estimated to have numbered around 40,000 in the capital, and over 200,000 people in the entire kingdom. The Eblaites of Mardikh II were Semites, close to their North-Western Semitic neighbors, such as the Amorites. Giovanni Pettinato said the Eblaite language, one of the oldest attested Semitic languages, was a West Semitic language; Gelb and others said it was an East Semitic dialect closer to the Akkadian language. Academic consensus considers Eblaite an East-Semitic language which exhibits both West-Semitic and East-Semitic features.</p><br>
<p>Ebla held several religious and social festivals, including rituals for the succession of a new king, which normally lasted for several weeks. The Eblaite calendars were based on a solar year divided into twelve months. Two calendars were discovered; the "old calendar" used during the reign of Igrish-Halam, and a "new calendar" introduced by vizier Ibbi-Sipish. Many months were named in honor of deities; in the new calendar, "Itu be-li" was the first month of the year, and meant "the month of the lord". Each year was given a name instead of a number.</p><br>
<p>Women received salaries equal to those of men and could accede to important positions and head government agencies. The Eblaites imported Kungas from Nagar, and used them to draw the carriages of royalty and high officials, as well as diplomatic gifts for allied cities. Society was less centered around the palace and the temple than in Mesopotamian kingdoms. The Eblaite palace was designed around the courtyard, which was open toward the city, thus making the administration approachable. This contrasts with Mesopotamian palaces, which resembled citadels with narrow entrances and limited access to the external courtyard. Music played an important part in the society and musicians were both locals, or hired from other cities such as Mari. Ebla also hired acrobats from Nagar, but later reduced their number and kept some to train local Eblaite acrobats.</p><br>
<h3>The third kingdom</h3><br>
<p>The Mardikh III population was predominately Semitic Amorite. The Amorites were mentioned in the first kingdoms tablets as neighbors and as rural subjects, and they came to dominate Ebla after the destruction of the second kingdom. The city witnessed a great increase in construction, and many palaces, temples and fortifications were built. The Amorite Eblaites worshiped many of the same deities as the Eblaites of earlier periods, and maintained the sanctity of the acropolis in the center of the city. The third kingdoms iconography and royal ideology were under the influence of Yamhads culture; kingship was received from the Yamhadite deities instead of Ishtar of Ebla, which is evident by the Eblaite seals of Indilimmas period.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>During the first kingdom period, the palace controlled the economy, but wealthy families managed their financial affairs without government intervention. The economic system was redistributive; the palace distributed food to its permanent and seasonal workers. It is estimated that around 40,000 persons contributed to this system, but in general, and unlike in Mesopotamia, land stayed in the hands of villages, which paid an annual share to the palace. Agriculture was mainly pastoral; large herds of cattle were managed by the palace. The city&#39;s inhabitants owned around 140,000 head of sheep and goats, and 9,000 cattle.</p><br>
<p>Ebla derived its prosperity from trade; its wealth was equal to that of the most important Sumerian cities, and its main commercial rival was Mari. Ebla&#39;s main articles of trade were probably timber from the nearby mountains, and textiles. Handicrafts also appear to have been a major export, evidenced by the quantity of artifacts recovered from the palaces of the city. Ebla possessed a wide commercial network reaching as far as modern-day Afghanistan. It shipped textiles to Cyprus, possibly through the port of Ugarit, but most of its trade seems to have been directed by river-boat towards Mesopotamia—chiefly Kish. The main palace G was found to contain artifacts dating from Ancient Egypt bearing the names of Pharaohs Khafra and Pepi I.</p><br>
<p>Ebla continued to be a center of trade during the second kingdom, evidenced by the surrounding cities that appeared during its period and were destroyed along with the city. Trade continued to be Ebla&#39;s main economic activity during the third kingdom; archaeological finds show there was an extensive exchange with Egypt and coastal Syrian cities such as Byblos.</p><br>
<h2>Religion</h2><br>
<p>Ebla was a polytheistic state. During the first kingdom, Eblaites worshiped their dead kings. The pantheon of the first Ebla included pairs of deities and they can be separated into three genres; in the first and most common one, there were the couples, such as the deity and his female consort. The second type of pairs was the divine twosomes, such as the deities that cooperate to create the cosmos, like in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian pantheons. The third type included divine pairs who were actually a single deity that had two names. Eblaites worshiped few Mesopotamian deities, preferring North-Western Semitic gods, some of which were unique to Ebla. The first genre of pairs included Nidakul, who was exclusive to Ebla, and his consort, Belatu ("his wife"); Rasap and his consort Adamma; the patron gods of the city Kura, who was unique to Ebla, and his consort Barama. The third genre included the artisan god Kamish/Tit, Kothar-wa-Khasis and the planet Venus represented by twin mountain Gods; Shahar as the morning star and Shalim as the evening star.</p><br>
<p>The first Eblaites worshiped many other deities, such as the Syrian goddess Ishara, who was the goddess of the royal family. Ishtar was also worshiped but was mentioned only five times in one of the monthly offering lists, while Ishara was far more important, appearing 40 times. Other deities included Damu; the Mesopotamian god Utu; Ashtapi; Dagan; Hadad (Hadda) and his consort Habadu; and Shipish, the goddess of the sun who had a temple dedicated to her cult. The four city gates were named after the gods Dagan, Hadda, Rasap and Utu, but it is unknown which gate had which name. Overall, the offering list mentioned about 40 deities receiving sacrifices.</p><br>
<p>During the third kingdom, Amorites worshiped common northern Semitic gods; the unique Eblaite deities disappeared. Hadad was the most important god, while Ishtar took Isharas place and became the citys most important deity apart from Hadad.</p><br>
<h3>Biblical connection theories</h3><br>
<p>At the beginning of the process of deciphering the tablets, Pettinato made claims about a possible connections between Ebla and the Bible, citing an alleged references in the tablets to the existence of Yahweh, the Patriarchs, Sodom and Gomorrah and other Biblical references. However, much of the initial media excitement about a supposed Eblaite connections with the Bible, based on preliminary guesses and speculations by Pettinato and others, is now widely discredited and the academic consensus is that Ebla "has no bearing on the Minor Prophets, the historical accuracy of the Biblical Patriarchs, Yahweh worship, or Sodom and Gomorrah". In Ebla studies, the focus has shifted away from comparisons with the Bible; Ebla is now studied as a civilization in its own right. The claims led to a bitter personal and academic conflict between the scholars involved, as well as what some described as political interference by the Syrian authorities.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery</h2><br>
<p>In 1964, Italian archaeologists from the University of Rome La Sapienza under the direction of Paolo Matthiae began excavating at Tell Mardikh. In 1968, they recovered a statue dedicated to the goddess Ishtar bearing the name of Ibbit-Lim, mentioning him as king of Ebla. That identified the city, long known from Lagashite and Akkadian inscriptions. In the next decade, the team discovered a palace (palace G) dating from c. 2500 – 2000 BC. Finds in the palaces include a small sculpture made out of precious materials, black stones and gold. Other artifacts included wood furniture inlaid with mother-of-pearl and composite statues created from colored stones. A silver bowl bearing king Immeya&#39;s name was recovered from the "Tomb of the Lord of the Goats", together with Egyptian jewels and an Egyptian ceremonial mace presented by pharaoh Hotepibre.</p><br>
<p>About 17,000 cuneiform tablet fragments were discovered; when put together, they constitute 2,500 complete tablets, making the archive of Ebla one of the biggest from the third millennium BC. About 80% of the tablets are written using the usual Sumerian combination of logograms and phonetic signs, while the others exhibited an innovative, purely phonetic representation using Sumerian cuneiform of a previously unknown Semitic language, which was called "Eblaite". Bilingual Sumerian/Eblaite vocabulary lists were found among the tablets, allowing them to be translated. The tablets provide many important insights into the cultural, economic and political life in northern Mesopotamia around the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. They also provide insight into the everyday lives of the inhabitants, and contain information about state revenues, Sumerian-Eblaite dictionaries, diplomatic exchanges with foreign rulers, school texts, hymns and myths.</p><br>
<h3>Library</h3><br>
<p>The tablets constitute one of the oldest archives and libraries ever found; there is tangible evidence of their arrangement and even classification. The larger tablets had originally been stored on shelves, but had fallen onto the floor when the palace was destroyed. The locations of the fallen tablets allowed the excavators to reconstruct their original positions on the shelves; they found the tablets had originally been shelved according to subject.</p><br>
<p>These features were absent from earlier Sumerian excavations. Sophisticated techniques of arrangement of texts, coupled with their composition, evidence the great antiquity of archival and library practices, which may be far older than was assumed to be the case before the discovery of the Ebla library. A sizable portion of the tablets contain literary and lexicographic texts; evidence seems to suggest the collection also served—at least partially—as a true library rather than a collection of archives intended solely for use by the kings, their ministers, and their bureaucracy. The tablets show evidence of the early transcription of texts into foreign languages and scripts, classification and cataloging for easier retrieval, and arrangement by size, form and content. The Ebla tablets have thus provided scholars with new insights into the origin of library practices that were in use 4,500 years ago.</p><br>
<h3>Legacy</h3><br>
<p>Eblas first kingdom is an example of early Syrian centralized states, and is considered one of the earliest empires by scholars, such as Samuel Finer, and Karl Moore, who consider it the first-recorded world power. Eblas discovery changed the former view of Syria&#39;s history as a bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt; it proved the region was a center of civilization in its own right.</p><br>
<h2>Syrian Civil War</h2><br>
<p>As a result of the Syrian Civil War, excavations of Ebla stopped in March 2011, and large-scale looting occurred after the site came under the control of an opposition armed group. Many tunnels were dug and a crypt full of human remains was discovered; the remains were scattered and discarded by the robbers, who hoped to find jewelry and other precious artifacts. Digging all around the mound was conducted by nearby villagers with the aim of looting artifacts; some villagers removed carloads of soil suitable for making ceramic liners for bread-baking ovens from the tunnels.</p><br>
<p>Mount Desert Island , in Hancock County, Maine, is the largest island off the coast of Maine. With an area of 108 square miles it is the 6th largest island in the contiguous United States. It is the second-largest island on the Eastern seaboard, behind Long Island and ahead of Martha&#39;s Vineyard. According to the 2010 census, the island has a year-round population of 10,615, although it is estimated that two and a half million tourists a year visit Acadia National Park on the island. The island is home to numerous well-known summer colonies such as Northeast Harbor and Bar Harbor.</p><br>
<h2>Origin of the name</h2><br>
<p>Some residents stress the second syllable (de-ZERT), in the French fashion, although many others pronounce it in a fashion similar to the English name of a landscape devoid of vegetation (DEH-zert). French explorer Samuel de Champlains observation that the summits of the islands mountains were free of vegetation as seen from the sea led him to call the island "île des Monts Déserts", or island of the Bare Mountains.</p><br>
<p>According to Acadia National Park movies shown to the public in the park&#39;s visitor center, the name means "Isle of the lonely mountains" because the mountain tops appear alone before any other land to approaching seafarers.</p><br>
<h2>Towns and villages</h2><br>
<p>There are four towns on Mount Desert Island:</p><br>
<p>Bar Harbor, with the villages of Eden, Hulls Cove, Salisbury Cove, and Town Hill</p><br>
<p>Mount Desert, with the villages of Hall&#39;s Quarry, Northeast Harbor, Otter Creek, Pretty Marsh, Seal Harbor, and Somesville</p><br>
<p>Southwest Harbor, with the villages of Manset and Seawall</p><br>
<p>Tremont, with the villages of Bass Harbor, Bernard, Gotts Island, Seal Cove, and West Tremont.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Deep shell heaps indicate American Indian encampments dating back 6,000 years in Acadia National Park, but prehistoric data is scanty. The first written descriptions of Maine coast Indians, recorded 100 years after European trade contacts began, describe American Indians who lived off the land by hunting, fishing, collecting shellfish, and gathering plants and berries. The Wabanaki Indians knew Mount Desert Island as Pemetic, "the sloping land". They built bark-covered conical shelters, and traveled in exquisitely designed birch bark canoes. Historical notes record that the Wabanaki wintered in interior forests and spent their summers near the coast. Archeological evidence suggests the opposite pattern; in order to avoid harsh inland winters and to take advantage of salmon runs upstream, American Indians wintered on the coast and summered inland.</p><br>
<h3>French colony</h3><br>
<p>The first meeting between the people of Pemetic and the Europeans is a matter of conjecture. But it was a Frenchman, Samuel de Champlain, who made the first important contribution to the historical record of Mount Desert Island. Champlain led an expedition from the St. Croix Settlement. He was tasked with exploring the coast in a patache with twelve sailors and two American Indian guides. They were in search of a mythical walled and wealthy American Indian city named Norumbega. On September 6, 1604 the expedition crossed Frenchman Bay and sailed towards Otter Creek, where smoke could be seen rising from an American Indian encampment. During high tide the ship hit a ledge off Otter Cliff and while repairing a hole two American Indians boarded the ship as guides.</p><br>
<p>It is not clear whether Champlain sailed around the Island or was informed by the guides, but on that day, he wrote in his journal, "Le sommet de la plus part d’icelles est desgarny d’arbres parceque ce ne sont que roches. Je l’ay nommée l’Isle des Monts-déserts", which translates to "The mountain summits are all bare and rocky. I name it Isles des Monts Desert."</p><br>
<h4>Raid on Mount Desert Island (1613)</h4><br>
<p>In 1613, French Jesuits, welcomed by Indians, established the first French mission in America—Saint Sauveur Mission—on what is now Fernald Point, near the entrance to Somes Sound. Saint Sauveur Mountain, overlooking the point, still bears the name of the mission.</p><br>
<p>The French missionaries began to build a fort, plant their corn, and baptize the natives. Two months later, on 2 July 1613, Captain Samuel Argall of the Colony of Virginia arrived on board the Treasurer and destroyed their mission. Three of the missionaries were killed and three were wounded. The rest of the company, some twenty in all, were taken prisoner. Argall took many of the prisoners to Jamestown. He eventually returned to Saint-Sauveur and cut down the cross the Jesuits had planted, replacing it with a Protestant version. He then set fire to the few buildings that were there. He then went on to burn the remaining French buildings on Saint Croix Island and Port Royal, Nova Scotia.</p><br>
<p>The English raid at Fernald Point signaled the dispute over the boundary between the French colony of Acadia to the north and the English colony of New England to the south. There is evidence that Claude de La Tour immediately challenged the English action by re-establishing a fur-trading post in the nearby village of Castine in the wake of Argall&#39;s raid.</p><br>
<p>There was a brief period when it seemed Mount Desert would again become a center of French activity. In 1688, Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, an ambitious young man who had immigrated to New France and bestowed upon himself the title sieur de Cadillac, asked for and received 100,000 acre of land along the Maine coast, including all of Mount Desert. Cadillacs hopes of establishing a feudal estate in the New World, however, were short-lived. Although he and his bride resided here for a time, they soon abandoned their enterprise. Cadillac later gained lasting recognition as the founder of Detroit. The islands highest point, at 1,528 ft the highest point on the eastern seaboard of the United States, bears the name Cadillac Mountain, and is notable for the fact that its summit is among the first points in the United States touched by the rays of the rising sun.</p><br>
<h4>Raid on Acadia (1704)</h4><br>
<p>During much of the seventeenth century, nearby Castine was the most southern settlement of Acadia. (Bristol, Maine, was the most northern New England settlement.) No one settled in this contested territory, and for the next 150 years Mount Desert Islands importance was primarily its use as a landmark for seamen, as for example when John Winthrop, first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, sketched the islands mountains on his voyage to the New World.</p><br>
<p>During Queen Anne&#39;s War, in response to the French Raid on Deerfield, New Englander Major Benjamin Church raided the Acadian village of Castine before gathering at Mount Desert Island with other ships to continue with the Raid on St. Stephen, Raid on Grand Pré, the Raid on Piziquid, and the Raid on Chignecto.</p><br>
<h3>British colony</h3><br>
<p>In 1759, after a century and a half of conflict, British troops triumphed in Quebec, ending French dominion in Acadia. With Indians scattered and the fleur-de-lis banished, lands along the Maine coast opened for English settlement. Governor Francis Bernard of Massachusetts obtained a royal land grant on Mount Desert Island. In 1760, Bernard attempted to secure his claim by offering free land to settlers. Abraham Somes and James Richardson accepted the offer and settled their families at what is now Somesville.</p><br>
<h3>American Revolution</h3><br>
<p>The onset of the American Revolutionary War ended Bernard&#39;s plans for Mount Desert Island. In its aftermath, Bernard, who had sided with the British government, lost his claim. Massachusetts, now free of British rule, granted the western half of Mount Desert Island to John Bernard, son of the governor, who, unlike his father, sided with the rebels. The eastern half of the island was granted to Marie Therese de Gregoire, granddaughter of Cadillac. Bernard and de Gregoire soon sold their landholdings to nonresident landlords.</p><br>
<p>Their real estate transactions probably made very little difference to the increasing number of settlers homesteading on Mount Desert Island. By 1820, when Maine separated from Massachusetts and became a separate state, farming and lumbering vied with fishing and shipbuilding as major occupations. Settlers converted hundreds of acres of trees into wood products ranging from schooners and barns to baby cribs and hand tools. Farmers harvested wheat, rye, corn, and potatoes. By 1850, the familiar sights of fishermen and sailors, fish racks and shipyards, revealed a way of life linked to the sea. Quarrying of granite, which could be cut from hills close to deep water anchorage for shipment to major cities on the east coast, was also a major industry.</p><br>
<h2>Rusticators</h2><br>
<p>It was the outsiders, artists, and journalists, who revealed and popularized this island to the world in the mid 19th century. Painters of the Hudson River School, including Thomas Cole and Frederic Church, glorified Mount Desert Island with their brushstrokes, inspiring patrons and friends to flock here. These were the "rusticators". Undaunted by crude accommodations and simple food, they sought out local fishermen and farmers to put them up for a modest fee. Summer after summer, the rusticators returned to renew friendships with local islanders and, most of all, to savor the fresh salt air, beautiful scenery, and relaxed pace. Soon the villagers cottages and fishermens huts filled to overflowing, and by 1880, 30 hotels competed for vacationers&#39; dollars. Tourism was becoming the major industry.</p><br>
<p>For a select handful of Americans, the 1880s and the "Gay Nineties" meant affluence on a scale without precedent. Mount Desert, still remote from the cities of the East, became a retreat for prominent people of the time. The Rockefellers, Morgans, Fords, Vanderbilts, Carnegies, and Astors, chose to spend their summers here. Not content with the simple lodgings then available, these families transformed the landscape of Mount Desert Island with elegant estates, ironically called "cottages". The landscape architect Beatrix Farrand, at the Cadwalder Rawle - Rhinelander Jones family summer home Reef Point Estate, designed the gardens for many of these people. Projects included the Chinese inspired garden at "The Eyrie" for Abby Aldrich Rockefeller at Seal Harbor (1926–35), and the planting plans for subtle roads at Acadia National Park sponsored by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. (c.1930). Luxury, refinement, and ostentatious gatherings replaced buckboard rides, picnics, and day-long hikes of an earlier era. Some rusticators also formed "Village Improvement Societies" which constructed hiking trails and walking paths connecting the Island&#39;s villages to its interior mountains. For over 40 years, the wealthy held sway at Mount Desert, but the Great Depression and World War II marked the end of such extravagance. The final blow came in 1947 when a fire of monumental proportions consumed many of the great estates.</p><br>
<h2>Acadia National Park</h2><br>
<p>In 1901, George B. Dorr, disturbed by the growing development of the Bar Harbor area and the dangers he foresaw in the newly invented gasoline powered portable sawmill, established along with others the Hancock County Trustees of Public Reservations. The corporation, whose sole purpose was to preserve land for the perpetual use of the public, acquired 6,000 acre by 1913. Dorr offered the land to the federal government, and in 1916, President Wilson announced the creation of Sieur de Monts National Monument. Dorr continued to acquire property and renewed his efforts to obtain full national park status for his beloved preserve. In 1919, President Woodrow Wilson signed the act establishing Lafayette National Park, the first national park east of the Mississippi. Dorr, whose labors constituted "the greatest of one-man shows in the history of land conservation", became the first park superintendent. In 1929, the park name was changed to Acadia National Park.</p><br>
<p>John D. Rockefeller Jr. endowed the park with much of its land area. Like many rusticators, Rockefeller, whose family fortune was derived from the petroleum industry, wanted to keep the island free of automobiles, but local governments allowed the entry of automobiles on the island&#39;s roads. Rockefeller constructed approximately 50 mi of carriage roads around the eastern half of the island. These roads were closed to automobiles and included many scenic vistas and beautiful stone bridges. Approximately 40 mi of these roads are within Acadia National Park and open only to hikers, bicyclists, horseback riders, horse-drawn carriages and cross country skiers.</p><br>
<p>In 1950, Marguerite Yourcenar and Grace Frick bought a house, "Petite Plaisance", in Northeast Harbor on the island. Yourcenar wrote a large part of her novel Memoires d&#39;Hadrien on the island, and she died there in 1987. Their house is now a museum. Both ladies were cremated and their ashes are buried in the Brookside Cemetery in Somesville.</p><br>
<p>In 1969, College of the Atlantic, the island&#39;s first and only institution of higher education, was established in Bar Harbor.</p><br>
<p>In 1986, Friends of Acadia, the nonprofit organization that directs private philanthropy and volunteerism for the benefit of Acadia National Park, was founded.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Desert Island is rich in geological history dating back to approximately 550 million years ago. The earliest formation on the island is the Ellsworth Schist Formation, which was a sea-floor mud deposit created during the Cambrian period by volcanic ash. During the Ordovician period the collision of Laurentia, Gondwanaland, and Avalonia, referred to as the Acadian orogeny, caused the formation to fold, thrust, and uplift above sea level, where later layers were eroded away and the schist was exposed. The Bar Harbor Formation, which is made up predominantly of sands and silts, and Cranberry Island Formation, made up from volcanic ash and magmatic debris, occurred under similar circumstances in the Silurian and Devonian periods, and were deposited on top of the Ellsworth Schist. However, due to less tectonic activity at that time, their deformation was less severe.</p><br>
<p>As mentioned above, quarrying of granite was historically an important industry. Due to orogenic activity during the Devonian, Mount Desert Island has three granite units, the Cadillac Mountain granite, the fine grained Somesville granite, and the medium grained Somesville granite. Surrounding these granites (labeled "DCg" on geologic maps) is a zone of brecciated material, known as DSz (Devonian Shatter Zone).</p><br>
<p>Most recently, Mount Desert Island was host to the Laurentide Ice Sheet as it extended and receded during the Pleistocene epoch. The glacier left a number of visible marks upon the landscape, such as Bubble Rock, a glacial erratic carried 19 mi by the ice sheet from a Lucerne granite outcrop and deposited precariously on the side of South Bubble Mountain in Acadia National Park. Other such examples are the moraines deposited at the southern ends of many of the glacier-carved valleys on the Island such as the Jordan Pond valley, indicating the extent of the glacier; and the beach sediments located in a regressional sequence beneath and around Jordan Pond, indicating the rebound of the continent after the glacier&#39;s recession approximately 25,000 years ago.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Excavations of old Indian sites in the Mount Desert Island region have yielded remains of the native mammals. Bones of wolf, North American beaver (Castor canadensis), deer, elk, gray seal (Halichoerus grypus), the Indian dog, and sea mink (Neovison macrodon) have been uncovered, as well as large numbers of raccoon, lynx, wolf, muskrat, and deer. Although beaver were trapped to extinction on the island, two pairs of beaver that were released in 1920 by George B. Dorr at the brook between Bubble Pond and Eagle Lake have repopulated it. A large fire in 1947 cleared the eastern half of the island of its coniferous trees and permitted the growth of aspen, birch, alder, maple and other deciduous trees which enabled the beaver to thrive.</p><br>
<h2>Art</h2><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Mount Desert Island is featured in the video game Fallout 4 expansion pack Fallout 4: Far Harbor.</p><br>
